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http://archive.org/details/persi  ' 


^•IIBRARY^  ^MEDM 

ersianpOOadam 

V  cTv!  =5       -r"  V 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN 


PERSONAL  EXPERIENCES, 
MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS,  RELIGIOUS  AND  SOCIAL 
LIFE  IN  PERSIA 


BY 

REV.  ISAAC  ADAMS,  M.  D. 

AUTHOR  AND  PUBLISHER  OF 

"DARKNESS  AND  DAYBREAK" 


ISSUED  IN  FOUR  LANGUAGES— ENGLISH,  HOLLAND,  GERMAN 
AND  SWEDISH. 


1900. 


ENTERED  ACCORDING  TO  THE  ACT  OF  CONGRESS 
ON  THE  TWENTY-FIRST  DAY  OF  JUNE 
IN  THE  YEAR  1900 
BY 

REV.  ISAAC  ADAMS,  M.  D., 

IN  THE  OFFICE  OF  THE  LIBRARIAN  OF  CONGRESS 
AT  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


DS 

za 

AZI3p 


(HIT: 


Bebtcateb 

O  all  who  are  interested  in  the 
advancement  of  the  kingdom 
of  our  blessed  Lord  among 
the  Heathens  and  Mohamme- 
dans. 


e 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


PREFACE. 

While  out  on  lecture  tours  in  this  country,  I  have  been  asked  many 
questions  about  the  manners,  customs,  and  peculiarities  of  my  own 
people.  These  questions  I  have  found  it  very  difficult  to  answer  in  the 
little  volume,  "Darkness  and  Daybreak,"  so  as  to  give  anything  like 
a  clear  picture  either  of  the  people  or  the  country  in  the  brief  time  that 
I  had  to  answer  them  under  such  circumstances,  and,  hence  this  book 
which  I  now  present  to  the  public,  with  the  earnest  hope  that  it  may 
find  a  welcome. 

I  trust  this  work  may  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  imparting  fresh 
information  and  quickening  an  intelligent  interest  of  a  hopeful  Christian 
effort,  and  I  trust  every  reader  will  join  us  in  the  hope  and  prayer  that 
no  student  of  the  Kingdom,  no  servant  of  Christ  and  His  Church  should 
fail  to  give  serious  and  sympathetic  attention  to  the  spread  of  the  gospel. 

Should  it  sometimes  entertain  you  and  your  children;  should  it 
succeed  in  arousing  a  deeper  interest  in  Christian  mission  work  among 
the  Mohammedan  nations ;  and  should  it  sometimes  prompt  an  earnest 
prayer  on  our  behalf  to  the  ever  present  God  and  Father  whom  we  all 
try,  though  it  may  be  in  much  human  weakness  and  under  vastly  differ- 
ent circumstances,  to  love  and  to  serve — then  its  object  is  accomplished. 

REV.  ISAAC  ADAMS,  M.  D. 

August  ist,  1900. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


7 


INTRODUCTORY. 

I  cannot  begin  to  write  a  narrative  of  the  facts  connected  with  the 
history  of  my  life,  without  giving  all  glory  and  praise  to  the  most 
precious  God,  who  has  so  wonderfully  guided  me,  during  the  last  twelve 
years  especially.  No  words  like  those  of  the  Scriptures  can  adequately 
express  my  heart's  gratitude  for  all  the  ways  by  which  He  has  led  me, 
and  you,  dear  reader,  will  magnify  Him  while  reading  as  I  did  while 
writing  this.  Le  us  exalt  His  name  forever;  let  the  Lord  be  magnified, 
which  taketh  pleasure  in  the  prosperity  of  His  elect.  Praise  ye  the 
Lord,  for  His  name  is  excellent;  His  glory  is  above  the  heavens.  I 
have  been  deeply  tried ;  yes,  the  Lord  is  with  the  righteous ;  "Lo,  I  am 
with  you."  Surely  he  has  been  with  me;  His  presence  has  gone  before 
me  and  has  given  me  strength  and  courage.  He  faileth  not.  I  have 
heard  His  voice  saying, '  'Fear  not,  I  will  help  thee. "  And  He  has  done 
so ;  yea,  in  the  deepest  waters ;  in  all  places  His  hand  has  led  me  and  He 
has  kept  me.  With  David  I  can  say,  "God  is  my  salvation."  I  will 
trust  and  not  be  afraid.  I  cried  by  reason  of  my  affliction  unto  the  Lord, 
and  He  answered  me.  The  Lord  stood  by  me  and  strengthened  me, 
saying:  "My  strength  is  made  perfect  in  weakness." 

From  many  dangerous  snares  hath  the  Lord  preserved  me ;  in  spite 
of  all  my  inward  rebellion,  He  hath  carried  on  His  good  work  in  my 
heart,  and  notwithstanding  all  my  unbelieving  fears  He  hath  given  me 
a  hope  full  of  immortality.  He  hath  set  my  feet  upon  a  rock  and  estab- 
lished my  goings  and  hath  put  a  new  song  into  my  mouth ;  even  praises 
unto  my  God. 

The  same  grace  and  forbearance,  the  same  wisdom  and  power  that 
have  brought  me  so  far,  will  bring  me  on,  though  it  be  through  fire 
and  water,  to  a  goodly  heritage.  I  see  no  business  in  life  but  the  work 
of  Christ,  neither  do  I  desire  any  employment  to  all  eternity  but  His 
service,  and  it  is  my  prayer  to  Him,  in  whose  hands  the  hearts  of  all 
men  are  like  the  rivers  of  water,  that  He  might  put  into  the  hearts  of 
those  who  love  Him  and  His  cause  to  enable  me  to  continue  in  His  serv- 
ice by  bringing  the  knowledge  of  the  only  Redeemer  Jesus  Christ  to  the 
great  multitude  who  know  Him  not. 


Persia  b£  a  Persian. 


PRICES 

Cloth  Binding,  Cover  Design,  Stamped  in  Gold 
Half  Morocco,  Marbled  Edges,  Hand  made 
Half  Morocco,  Gilt  Edges,  Hand  made 
Fall  Morocco,  Gilt  Edges,  Hand  made 


$2.50 
3.60 
4.50 
5.50 


it 


Darkness  and  Daybreak," 


is  the  title  of  a  most  interesting  and  instructive  book  from  the  pen  of 
Rev.  Isaac  Adams,  a  native  missionary  of  Persia.  It  contains  a  com- 
prehensive description  of  the  manners,  customs,  habits,  religious  and 
social  life  of  Persians.  The  work  contains  232  pages  including  32 
full  page  half-tone  illustrations,  printed  in  clear  type,  bound  in  fine 
silk  cloth.    Price  75  cents. 

If  you  want  to  awaken  the  missionary  spirit,  send  to  the  author, 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  and  get  "Darkness  and  Daybreak. " — Agents 
wanted  in  every  locality.    Write  for  particulars  to  the  author. 

Address 

Rev.  Isaac  Adams,  m.  d., 

124  LAGKAVB  STREET, 

GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN. 


Tfacht  und 

■   m  ^ — -^Tfforgen. 

GERMAN  EDITION.  PRICE  75  CENTS. 


Worker  ^  ^ 


OCH 

DAGGRYNING 


About  250  pages.    Also  contains  all  the  Illustrations 
that  are  in  "  Persia  by  a  Persian."    Price  $1.25. 


1(1 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Illustrations. 


PAGE. 

Frontispiece   1 

Exiles  on  Their  Way  to  Siberia   18 

Four  Brothers  in  Different  Costumes   33 

Paul  John   34 

Teachers  and  Helpers  of  the  Authors  Mission  Work   40 

Telegram  Requesting  Release  of  Isaac  Adams   43 

Funeral  Procession  of  Jesse,  Stepbrother  of  the  Patriarch     49 

Mar  Gabriel  and  His  Nephew   50 

Prof.  Garabed  Thoumaian  in  Turkish  Irons   54 

Massacre  at  Sassoun   56 

I.  Yohannan  and  A.  George   61 

I.  Yohannan  in  Native  Costume   63 

Sister  of  I.  Yohannan  and  Her  Baby   65 

A  Letter  from  Joseph  While  I  was  in  Turkish  Prison   66 

School  at  Alkai   70 

School  at  Karasanlovi    72 

Medical  Diploma  of  Isaac  Adams   77 

Nasreddin  Shah  Meeting  Queen  Victoria  in  1889  '   94 

Present  Shah,  etc   98 

One  of  the  Seven  Gates  of  Oroomiah  City   102 

A  Young  Officer   105 

Lord  at  Oroomiah  with  His  Friends   107 

Plowing  with  Oxen   115 

A  Chained  Gang   116 

Bastinado   121 

Cultivating  the  Vineyard    128 

Baking  Bread   136 

Say-Yids  Feasting   138 

Women  Cleaning  Cabbage   146 

Digging  Ditches  for  Irrigation   154 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  n 


ILLUSTRATIONS— Continued. 

PAGE. 

Threshing  Wheat   157 

Plowing  the  Land  with  Eight  Buffaloes   158 

Buffalo  Fight   159 

Bankers  or  Sarafs   163 

Five  Gentlemen  on  a  Hunting  Trip   170 

A  Mohammedan  Lady  in  Street  Costume  ;   175 

A  Persian  Smoking  Water  Pipe   177 

Veiled  and  Unveiled  Women   179 

Christian  Persian  Mother  at  the  Side  of  the  Cradle   190 

Carrying  Water  and  Reapers   204 

A  Mohammedan  and  One  of  His  Wives   209 

Young  Christian  Persian  Lady  and  Indoor  Costume   214 

An  Agreement  with  Patriarch  and  His  Headmen  to  do  Mission  Work  among 

His  People.  220,  221 

Nestorian  Archbishop  and  Dr.  Adams  in  Nestorian  Priest  Costume   226 

Nestorian  Christian  Lady   229 

Dr.  Adams'  Ordination  Diploma   235 

Paul  John  and  Dr.  Adams   238 

Lord's  Prayer  Written  in  Eight  Different  Languages   245 

School  at  Koom   247 

Mohammed  the  Founder  of  Islam   262 

Ommar   277 

Mohammed  and  the  Devil   299 

David  Bar  Joseph  in  Hajj  Costume   325 

A  Mohammedan  Lady  Smoking  a  Water  Pipe   356 

Dancing  Dervishes   391 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  1   397 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  II   399 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  III   400 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  IV   401 

A  Persian  Lord  and  His  Attendants   413 

Water-carrier,  on  the  Ass   417 

High  Class  Dervish  and  Medicine  Dervish   423 

Dr.  Adams  and  I.  Yohannan   427 

Dr.  Adams'  Mission  School  at  Mart-Maryan   435  ' 

Adams  Brothers,  in  American  Costume   439 

Jacob  Adams  in  High-class  Costume   443 

A  Highwayman   451 


12 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued. 

PAGE. 

Abbas  Effendi  (or  the  Lord  and  Master  as  called  by  his  Followers)   462 

Two  Kurdish  Men  and  a  Boy   491 

Kurdish  Sheiks   494 

The  Spiritual  Head  of  all  the  Kurdish,  Sheik-Sadik   496 

Three  Syrians  of  the  Kurdistan  Mountains   498 

A  Devil  Worshiper  Sheik   502 

The  Devil  Worship  Priest   507 

Zoroaster  at  the  Age  of  Thirty    510 

Confirmation  of  a  Youth  among  the  Fire  Worshipers,  and  Priest  of  Fire  Worship- 
ers attending  to  Holy  Fire     516 

Idealized  Portrait  from  a  sculpture  supposed  to  represent  Zoroaster   519 

Specimen  of  Ancient  Syriac  Language   534 


CONTENTS. 


13 


Contents- 


PART  I. 

PAGE. 

Personal  History     17 

Isaac  Adams,  Arrested   42 

Memorials  of  Isaac  Adams.  Making  Claims  for  Losses  and  Injuries  Against  the 

Turkish  Government                                                               '.   44 

Medical  Missionary   57 

Practice  of  Medicine  in  Persia   59 

My  Second  Journey  to  America   60 

Report  of  My  School   68 

PART  II. 

History  of  Persia  ,   76 

The  Proclamation  of  Cyrus    79 

Death  of  Cyrus   80 

Cambyses   81 

Darius  Hystaspes   82 

The  Ionian  Revolt   83 

Xerxes   84 

The  Crossing  of  the  Hellespont   85 

At  Thermopylae   85 

Return  of  Xerxes   86 

Darius  and  Alexander   87 

Alexander  in  Jerusalem   87 

Death  of  Darius  and  His  Wife   89 

Alexander  at  Babylon   90 

Chosroes  II   90 

Teheran.....   96 

The  Court  of  Persia   102 

The  Noblemen   106 

Shahr  and  the  Urf   109 

Land   114 

Modes  of  Punishment,  Executor — Cruelty,  Highway  Robbery,  Execution   115 

Bastinado,  Disfiguring  Evil  Doers,  How  the  Heads  are  Cut  Off  117  to  122 

Climate  and  Products   123 

Mt.  Ararat   125 

Wines  of  Persia   127 

The  Condition  and  Needs  of  Persia   129 

Products,  and  Methods  of  Disposing  of  Them   131 


14 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


CONTENTS— Continued. 

PAGE. 

Houses  and  Cities   133 

How  They  Eat   137 

Education   141 

Mohammedan  Women   144 

Modes  of  Traveling   146 

The  Rural  Districts   148 

Agriculture   155 

Cultivating  the  Ground   158 

The  Bazaar  and  Currency   160 

Business  Life   162 

Nature's  Poetry   165 

Social  and  Home  Life. . .     ,    --    -   169 

Smoking  Water  Pipes   176 

Men's  Costume   177 

Women's  Costume     178 

The  Race  and  Character  ,    -      180 

Sentimental  Literature   181 

The  Passionate  Love  Songs   185 

Social  and  Domestic  Life  in  Persia   188 

Girl's  Life  and  Marriage   192 

Dwelling  Place  of  a  Married  Woman   200 

Duties  of  Women  in  Persia   201 

Women  in  the  Chamber  of  Sickness  and  Death   206 

Burial  Services   210 

Christianity  the  Only  Hope  for  Women                i  ~~   213 

PART  III. 

Nestorius   217 

Introduction  of  Christianity  among  the  Syrians  or  Nestorians    218 

Their  Courtship  and  Marriage   225 

Preparations  for  the  Wedding   228 

Funeral  Services   238 

Nestorian  Churches   234 

Historical  Mission  Work   237 

Printing  Press   246 

Bible  Rules  for  Giving     250 

Dr.  Adams'  Address  in  U.  S.  and  Persia   250 

Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism    >   251 

Birth  of  Mohammed  and  Life  to  Fortieth  Year  251-256 

The  Story  of  the  Prophets'  Fortunes  at  Medina   268 

The  Character  of  Mohammed   279 


His  Speech,  Gait,  Habits  in  Eating,  Moderation,  Custom  of  Prayer,  Refused  to 
make  personal  use  of  Tithes,  Food  Relished,  Women  and  Scents, 
Straightened  Means  at  Medina,  Appearance,  Habits,  etc.,  Seal  of 
Prophecy,  Hair,  Mustache,  Dress,  Shoes,  Toothpicks,  Articles  of  Toilet, 
Armor,  Miscellaneous,  Horses,  Riding  Camels,  Milch  Camels,  Milch 
Flocks,  Servants,  Houses,  Properties  280-287, 


CONTENTS. 


15 


CONTENTS— Continued. 

PAGE. 

The  Wives  of  Mohammed   287 

Good  Works   290 

Fasting  ^Z9Z" 

Hijrah   J293 

The  Year  of  Elephant   293 

Ramazan   293 

Food   296 

Eating   297 

Bismillah   299 

Creed    300 

The  Names  of  God   300 

Azan   303 

Ablution   804 

Wuzu   306 

Prayer   307 

Salatu  'S-Safar   312 

Salatu  'T-Tarawitr   312 

Salatu 'T-Tasbih   313 

Prayers  for  the  Dead   313 

Friday   314 

Zakat   315 

Hajj   318 

Idu'L-Fitr   326 

Idu'LAzha   330 

The  Performance  of  Religious  Duties    333 

The  Dying   333 

Visiting  the  Sick   334 

Death,  Arabic  Maut;  Wafat   334 

Grave  and  Burial  Ceremonies   340 

Heaven   347 

The  Earth   348 

Gabriel.     349 

Mohammed's  Journey  to  Paradise     350 

Eternity  of  Punishment   352 

Hell   353 

Oath   353 

Administration  of  an  Oath   355 

Beauty   356 

Puberty   357 

V-  Marriage   358 

The  Validity  of  Marriage   359 

The  Legal  Disabilities  to  Marriage   362 

v  The  Religious  Ceremony   365 

Harem  or  Hareem   366 

Concubine   374 

Divorce   375 


16 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


CONTENTS— Continued. 

PAGE. 

Widows    381 

Re-Marriage   381 

Paradise  ,   382 

Husbands   385 

Priesthood   386 

Fagir,  or  Darwesh   388 

Al-Hajaru-L-Aswad   394 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  1   396 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  II   398 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  III   402 

Mecca  Certificate  or  a  Passport  to  Heaven,  Plate  IV   402 

Persian  Snake  Charmer   408 

Al-Hasan   409 

Al-Husain   409 

Islam  and  Christianity   425 

Mohammedan  Sects   440 

Superstitions  and  Peculiarities  among  the  Mohammedans.    Sleeping,  Swine, 
Spitting,  Sneezing,  Dogs,  The  Devil,  Dreams,  Hair,  Hand,  Evil  Eye, 

Earrings  and  Noserings,  Fai,  Blasphemy  444,  452 

Bab  and  Babism   453 

A  Message  from  Acca      470 

To  the  Americans,  A  Declaration— He  is  God   477 

Selected  Precepts  of  El-Hak   477 

American  Pilgrims   478 

Letter  from  Mrs.  Getsinger  to  the  Assembly  in  Chicago   481 

Letter  from  Mrs.  Kheiralla  to  the  Assembly  in  Chicago   484 

Letter  from  Mrs.  Hearst   489 

The  Kurds   490 

The  Yezidees  or  Devil  Worshipers   497 

The  Guebres  or  Fire  Worshipers   509 

History  of  Akhikar,  the  Wise  Secretary  of  Saukherib,  King  of  Ashur  and 

Nineve   521 


PART  I. 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 

I  was  born  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Persia,  on  the  twenty-eighth 
day  of  November,  1872,  at  Sangar,  a  village  about  two  hours  walk  from 
Oroomiah  city.  The  village  contained  about  twenty-five  Nestorian 
families,  and  as  many  houses.  The  surrounding  villages  were  all  Mo- 
hammedan, some  of  them  lying  not  more  than  half  an  hour's  distance 
away  from  Sangar.  Thus  the  people  in  my  village-home  have  had  all 
their  intercourse  with  Mohammedans,  and  in  consequence  had  lost  all 
knowledge  of  Christianity  and  had  adopted  instead  Mohammedan  cus- 
toms as  well  as  their  language,  the  national  language  of  the  Nestorians 
being  Syriac,  which  is  widely  different  from  that  of  the  Mohammedans. 
Together  with  the  customs  and  language,  the  people  of  my  home-village 
had  also  adopted  all  kinds  of  profanity.  The  keeping  of  the  Sabbath 
day  was  entirely  lost.  People  would  plow  and  do  other  work  in  the 
field  just  as  on  any  other  day. 

Another  very  bad  habit  of  the  people  at  Sangar  was  the  beating  of 
their  wives.  It  is  quite  common  there  to  see  a  woman's  head  bruised 
and  her  clothing  torn.  Thus  I  was  brought  up,  among  ignorant  and  ill- 
influenced  people. 

When  about  6  years  of  age,  my  father  and  two  other  persons  went 
to  Russia  for  the  trading  business.  They  had  but  one  passport  for  the 
three  of  them.  After  having  remained  in  Russia  for  a  short  time,  one  of 
the  men  was  obliged  to  return  to  Persia,  he  having  been  advised  of  sick- 
ness in  his  family.  After  some  time,  my  father  and  his  companion  were 
to  go  on  to  another  city  in  Russia.  Upon  entering  the  gates  they  were 
taken  prisoners,  the  officer  claiming  that  in  the  passport  three  men  were 
mentioned,  and  they  were  but  two.  All  explanation  on  the  part  of  the 
travelers  was  unheeded,  and  their  case  was  finally  ended  by  sending 
them  both  to  Siberia  for  life,  and  in  all  probability  they  are  already  dead, 
as  we  have  never  heard  of  them  since. 

It  was  extremely  sad  for  my  poor  mother  to  have  been  left  with 
five  children,  all  below  12  years  of  age;  but  this  was  not  all.  The  lord 
of  the  village  came  with  some  forged  notes,  claiming  tha£  my  father 
owed  him  money  and  demanding  pay.  As  my  poor  mother  had  nothing 
to  pay  with,  he  took  possession  of  the  land  we  owned  and  a  part  of  our 
vineyard. 

My  task  in  early  boyhood  was  to  do  little  chores  at  home  and  herd 

17 


IS 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  cattle.  Like  most  boys,  I  delighted  in  climbing  trees,  but  once  it 
happened  that  I  fell  from  the  top  of  a  tree  and  broke  my  arm.  Blood 
was  gushing  from  my  nose  and  ears,  and  I  was  carried  home.  The  house 
was  soon  crowded  with  people,  who  decided  to  make  bread  and  Mar- 
tooha  and  give  it  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  poor. 

The  Martooha  is  a  mixture  of  flour,  molasses  and  butter,  and  is 
received  by  those  among  whom  it  is  distributed  as  an  offering,  with 
the  greeting:  '"May  God  restore  him  to  health." 

But  this  was  not  all.  My  mother  had  also  secretly,  but  solemnly, 
vowed  that  she  would,  in  case  of  my  recovery,  have  a  lamb  sacrificed 
to  Mar-Obdishoo,  a  Nestorian  saint,  at  the  church  built  to  his  memory. 
When  I  was  quite  recovered,  therefore,  my  mother,  a  number  of  friends 


Exiles  on  their  way  to  Siberia  accompanied 
by  their  friends  up  to  this  tower,  where 
they  bid  their  last  farewell  and 
are  separated  forever. 

and  I,  with  a  lamb,  repaired  to  Mar-Obdishoo.  The  lamb  was  slain  in 
the  churchyard  and  its  blood  sprinkled  on  the  altar  of  the  church  and 
in  my  face,  while  a  number  of  little  bells  were  rung  in  the  church.  I 
was  then  ordered  to  take  the  bells,  and  ringing  them,  cry  out :  "O,  Mar- 
Obdishoo,  Mar-Obdishoo,  I  thank  you  that  you  have  let  me  regain  my 
health !" 

The  lamb  was  hereupon  taken  to  a  dwelling  and  boiled,  and  the 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


19 


meat  given  to  those  in  attendance ;  the  head  and  skin,  however,  together 
with  a  small  quantity  of  meat,  belonged  to  the  janitor  as  his  fee.  Some 
of  the  meat  was  also  taken  back  to  Sangar,  upon  our  return,  to  be 
distributed  there.    I  was  not  allowed  one  morsel  of  it. 

When  about  13  years  of  age,  a  buffalo  out  of  the  herd  of  cattle  I  was 
watching,  ran  among  some  heaps  of  cut  wheat  in  a  field  where  farmers 
were  threshing.  In  doing  so,  the  buffalo  broke  the  Dach,  or  sign,  which 
the  lord  of  the  village  had  set  upon  the  heaps  of  wheat.  Upon  perceiv- 
ing this,  the  lord  called  me  to  him  in  a  very  friendly  manner,  holding  out 
to  me  a  very  beautiful  cane  and  promising  me  the  cane  if  I  came.  I  did 
so,  though  hesitatingly.  Suddenly  I  was  rudely  seized  by  some  servants 
who  held  me  firmly,  while  others  subjected  me  to  an  application  of  the 
bastinado,  so  cruelly,  that  both  my  feet  bled  profusely  and  I  was  not 
able  to  walk  for  about  two  months. 

After  this  sad  experience  I  left  the  village  clandestinely  and  repaired 
to  Wazerawa  where  my  aunt  and  all  the  relatives  of  my  mother  lived. 
My  aunt  received  me  gladly,  and,  having  lost  a  child  of  about  my  age, 
bade  me  remain  with  her  and  would  not  hear  of  my  leaving.  After  I 
had  been  with  her  for  about  one  year  the  rest  of  our  family  followed  to 
Wazerawa. 

At  Sangar  we  had  owned  an  orchard  near  the  dwelling  where  we 
lived.  It  had  been  my  delight  to  climb  into  the  fruit  trees  and  eat  fruit 
to  my  heart's  content.  Near  my  aunt's  dwelling,  at  Wazerawa,  there 
also  was  an  orchard  but  it  belonged  to  a  neighbor.  This  difference  in 
ownership,  however,  made  very  little  difference  to  me,  and  I  tried  to 
continue  my  orchard  practice  here  also.  Of  course,  I  well  knew  that 
I  deserved  punishment  for  climbing  into  a  neighbor's  tree  and  appropri- 
ating some  of  the  fruit,  consequently  I  did  my  tree-climbing  after  dark, 
in  the  evening.,  One  dark  night,  as  I  sat  in  the  very  top  of  a  fine  apple 
tree,  feeling  quite  secure  from  detection,  I  suddenly  heard  a  voice  below 
me  calling  out :  "What  are  you  doing  up  there  ?"  I  replied  that  I  had  been 
late  for  supper,  for  which  my  uncle  would  whip  me.  I  had,  therefore, 
tried  to  hide  from  him.  He  ordered  me  to  come  down,  but  my  pockets 
were  filled  with  apples  from  the  tree,  and  so  I  hesitated,  pondering  how 
to  escape  the  well-deserved  punishment. 

Finally  I  told  the  neighbor  I  would  come  down  if  he  would  promise 
not  to  chastise  me.  He  did  so ;  and  I  came  down,  delivered  up  my  stolen 
apples  and  went  home. 

My  uncle  now  began  to  employ  me  by  sending  me  out  to  his 
vineyard  to  watch  it.    I  had  very  good  times  doing  this,  as  I  was  very 


20 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


liberal,  I  would  stand  out  in  the  road  and  ask  people  passing  by  to  come 
in  and  help  themselves  to  some  grapes,  and  quite  often  I  pressed  my  re- 
quest so  urgently  as  to  almost  compel  people  to  come  in  and  eat  grapes. 
Occasionally  I  would  fill  a  basket  with  grapes  and  hand  out  some  to 
every  person  who  happened  to  pass  by.  My  motive  in  doing  this  was 
that  I  considered  it  an  injustice  that  I  alone  should  have  so  many  fine 
grapes,  while  so  many  others  had  none.  The' principal  reason  for  my 
liberality,  however,  was  my  sociability.  I  liked  to  be  in  company  with 
other  human  beings  and  hated  seclusion.  The  neighbors  surrounding 
my  uncle's  vineyard  were  all  Mohammedans  with  whom  I  dared  not 
communicate,  and  I,  therefore,  sought,  by  being  liberal,  to  enjoy  the 
company  of,  and  intercourse  with,  fellow-beings  such  as  I  myself  was. 

The  vineyard  was  a  very  quiet,  secluded  spot,  and  I  could  not  even 
force  myself  into  liking  it.  When  my  mother  and  the  rest  of  the  family 
moved  to  Wazerawa,  I  consequently  left  my  uncle's  and  joined  a  num- 
ber of  other  young  lads  in  taking  care  of  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of 
sheep. 

While  being  thus  occupied  one  day,  a  boy,  Benyamin  Bar  Younan 
by  name,  a  relative  to  Kasha  Sayad,  a  native  preacher,  employed  by  the 
Presbyterian  mission  in  Persia,  met  me.  lie  remained  with  me  for  some 
time,  repeating  to  me  stories  from  the  Bible,  among  others  the  parable 
of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus.  When  he  had  left  me  I  could  not  help 
but  think  over  and  over  again  what  I  had  heard.  A  few  days  later  we 
met  a  second  time.  I  addressed  him  with  this  question :  "Suppose  a 
man  should  like  to  go  to  heaven,  what  must  he  do  ?"  He  replied :  "He 
must  not  eat  or  drink  anything  for  three  clays,  but  keep  on  in  prayer 
all  this  time,  and  then  be  good  and  do  good  afterwards."  "Then,"  said 
I,  "the  people  must  be  very  foolish  not  to  prefer  to  be  like  Lazarus  in 
this  life,  when  heaven  and  its  blessedness  last  forever."  I  then  asked 
where  he  had  found  those  stories,  and  what  other  knowledge  he  had  of 
heaven.  He  told  me  it  was  all  written  in  a  book  called  Bible,  which  he 
claimed  to  be  a  very  holy  book,  even  called  it  God's  book ;  but  also  told 
me  that,  if  I  wished  to  learn  more  about  these  things,  I  should  have 
to  go  and  see  his  uncle,  Kasha  Sayad.  I  followed  this  advice,  for  I  was 
eager  to  learn  more,  and  to  Kasha  Sayad  I  am  greatly  indebted  for  what 
knowledge  I  received  by  my  early  acquaintance  with  him.  Through 
his  influence  I  was  enabled  to  attend  the  missionary  school,  where  my 
hungry  and  thirsty  soul  was  fed  on  the  precious  word  of  God.  Reading 
my  Testament,  and  not  being  able  to  comprehend  very  much  of  it  at 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


21 


first,  I  would  kneel  down  and  pray  to  God,  and  say :  "Oh  Lord,  if  Thou 
art  God,  make  Thyself  manifest  and  show  me  also  myself."  Then  again 
at  times  it  seemed  almost  impossible  to  me  to  trust  fully  in  an  invisible 
God. 

Upon  entering-  the  mission  school  I  encountered  the  enmity  and 
hatred  of  my  relatives,  who  were  all  dissatisfied  with  this  step ;  but,  by 
the  grace  of  God  and  through  the  kindness  of  Kasha  Sayad,  I  was 
enabled  to  attend  also  the  high  school  at  Oroomiah  City. 

Here  I  attended  until  the  winter  of  1887,  when  I  was  requested  by 
Kasha  Peria,  a  native  missionary,  who  had  been  educated  at  Hermans- 
burg,  Germany,  and  received  his  support  from  there,  to  go  and  teach  one 
of  his  schools  at  Satlovi.  I  took  charge  of  a  school  of  about  twenty- 
five  children,  and  found  the  work  very  interesting,  especially  as  I  visited 
the  children's  parents  in  the  evenings,  and,  to  their  great  delight,  read  to 
*hem  from  the  Bible.  I  did  not  try  to  give  any  explanation,  but  simply 
read  from  ten  to  fifteen  consecutive  chapters.  On  Saturdays  I  went  to 
the  neighboring  villages  with  my  Bible,  read  from  it  to  the  people  and 
conversed  with  them  on  the  Christian  religion  and  Christ's  love  to  sin- 
ners. Returning  from  such  work  towards  evening  one  Saturday,  I  met 
a  Mohammedan  and  passed  without  saluting  him.  He  stopped  me,  and 
roughly  inquired  why  I  had  not  greeted  him.  I  told  him  I  had  neglected 
the  courtesy  because  I  did  not  know  in  what  language  to  address  him. 
To  explain  this,  I  must  inform  the  reader  that  not  all  Mohammedans 
speak  the  same  language.  It  is  also  dangerous  to  address  Mohammedans, 
as  I  found  by  the  following  experience  which  I  had  had  some  time 
previous.  I  had  met  two  Mohammedans  on  my  way  and  saluted  them 
both  in  a  friendly  manner.  Presently  there  came  a  Christian.  I  stopped 
immediately  and  spoke  to  him.  Upon  perceiving  this  the  two  Moham- 
medans quickly  returned,  stopped  me,  and,  one  placing  himself  on  my 
right  side,  and  the  other  on  the  left,  each  dagger  in  hand,  they  said 
they  would  immediately  kill  me  if  I  did  not  at  once  return  their  saluta- 
tion. I  complied  with  their  request  so  eagerly  that  I  bowed  three  times 
to  their  once.  In  this  instance  the  Mohammedan  was  not  satisfied,  but 
insisted  that  I  had  failed  to  greet  him  through  disrespect  and  threatened 
also  to  kill  me,  accompanying  this  threat  by  a  drawn  dagger,  the  point 
of  which  he  pressed  to  my  breast  so  hard  that  I  even  felt  the  point  pen- 
etrating my  skin.  But  at  this  moment  we  saw  a  caravan  approaching, 
whereupon  the  Mohammedan  withdrew  his  dagger  and  contemptuously 
said  that  he  had  only  tried  to  scare  me. 

I  was  so  excited  that  I  could  not  speak  for  four  or  five  hours,  was 


22 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


taken  to  a  village  near  by  and  remained  there  until  Monday ;  then  I 
returned  and  continued  my  work.* 

In  the  summer  of  1887  I  entered  Oroomiah  College  Mission  School, 
in  connection  with  which  there  is  also  an  industrial  school.  At  the  latter, 
carpenter's  work,  shoemaking  and  hatmaking  were  taught.  I,  in  con- 
nection with  my  other  studies,  entered  the  shoemaking  department,  and 
under  the  direction  of  Oosta  Ayraham  learned  that  trade.  After  a  few 
weeks,  during  which  Mr.  Ayraham  had  become  acquainted  with  me 
and  my  circumstances,  he  took  more  pains  with  me  than  with  any  other 
of  his  pupils,  so  that  in  the  examination  at  the  end  of  the  term  I  made 
a  good  showing. 

The  college  term  ended  in  July ;  this  permitted  me  to  devote  all  my 
time  to  my  trade  in  the  industrial  school.  In  the  fall  of  1888,  Mr.  Ayra- 
ham left  his  position.  A  Mohammedan  took  his  place.  During  the 
vacancy  the  school  was  left  in  my  charge.  I  had  possession  of  the  keys, 
and  the  whole  property  was  in  my  care.  The  new  teacher  gave  no  satis- 
faction ;  he  appeared  to  be  dishonest,  and  was  soon  discharged.  I  then 
again  filled  the  position  until  another  teacher  could  be  found. 

After  the  closing  of  the  college  term,  I  kept  the  industrial  school 
in  operation.  I  was  in  charge  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  boys,  and  the  work 
progressed  nicely  in  the  interest  of  the  mission.  During  this  time  I 
was  also  elected  elder  in  the  church  at  Wazerawa,  and  while  at  college 
I  spent  every  Sunday  at  Wazerawa  and  Dizza,  teaching  Sunday-school. 
I  was  also  robbed  several  times  and  had  several  dangerous  encounters 
with  highwaymen,  one  of  which  has  left  a  scar  on  my  right  eye  to  this 
day. 

In  the  spring  of  1889,  I  was  sent  by  the  missionaries  to  teach  school 
at  Ardishai.  I  had  here  forty  pupils  on  an  average,  coming  from  about 
six  different  villages.  The  instruction  was  to  be  given  in  four  different 
languages,  viz:  Persian,  Turkish,  Chaldean  and  Syriac.  But  I  must 
confess  I  was  rather  severe  in  my  treatment  with  the  pupils.  I  gen- 
erally kept  about  a  half-dozen  switches  in  the  school-room,  and  it  was 
not  at  all  uncommon  for  me  to  whip  children  until  they  bled.  I  kept 
all  doors  and  windows  closed,  to  stifle  the  screams  of  the  poor  children 
while  being  chastised,  but  the  boys  nevertheless  managed  to  make  them- 
selves be  heard  for  about  two  blocks.    I  thought  then  that  I  had  to  do 


*This  Mohammedan's  name  was  Samat  of  Baranduz.  Before  my 
encounter  with  him  he  had  already  killed  not  less  than  sixty  persons. 
He  was  about  40  years  of  age  and  was  later  on  killed  by  other  robbers. 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


23 


this,  since  the  parents  in  place  of  administering-  the  proper  punishment 
at  home,  would  come  and  tell  me  that  their  children  had  sinned  and 
entreated  me  to  punish  them  for  it. 

One  day  as  1  rang  the  bell,  it  appeared  to  me  that  the  pupils  had 
made  up  their  minds  to  have  their  own  way  about  coming-.  The  rule 
was  that,  upon  hearing  the  bell  ring,  every  pupil  should  drop  everything 
and  come  right  into  the  school-room  and  quietly  take  his  seat.  I  said 
nothing,  but  waited.  When  they  came  in,  about  five  minutes  later,  I 
shut  all  doors  and  windows  and  ordered  them  to  stand  side  by  side  with 
their  backs  against  the  wall.  I  then  took  a  switch,  rushed  around  the 
room  and  struck  them  again  and  again  across  their  bare  legs  and  feet 
(their  shoes  and  slippers  always  were  left  standing  out  in  the  hall).  Soon 
legs  and  feet  began  to  bleed,,  and  of  course  they  screamed  piteously.  But 
this  I  would  not  have.  To  stop  it  I  struck  some  of  them,  who  had  fallen 
to  the  floor,  across  their  backs,  and  threatened  to*  treat  them  all  in  the 
same  manner  if  they  did  not  immediately  cease  their  noise.  By  this 
outrage  I  soon  had  the  room  quieted,  and  the  pupils  were  always  on 
time  afterwards.  This,  however,  was  not  the  only  mode  of  punishment. 
Sometimes  I  would  order  the  tallest  boy  in  the  room  to  take  the  boy 
who  was  to  be  chastised,  on  his  back,  holding  him  by  his  hands,  and 
then  bend  over  to  keep  his  feet  from  the  ground.  I  would  then  take 
my  switch  and  lash  the  boy  across  his  legs  and  back.  Still  another 
severe  chastisement  is  to  have  the  pupil  fold  his  arms  tightly  and  then 
sit  down  upon  the  floor.  A  stick  is  now  passed  through  under  his  arms 
in  front  of  his  body,  his  legs  are  then  lifted  over  the  stick  and  he  is  thus 
left  in  a  helpless  position,  so  that  the  teacher  may  strike  him  wherever 
he  pleases.  Occasionally  I  was  afraid  inwardly  of  some  of  the  boys,  as 
they  were  older  and  taller  than  I  was,  but  somehow  I  overcame  the 
sensation,  and  never  had  any  trouble  in  this  direction.  I  was  not  the 
originator  or  inventor  of  any  of  these  cruel  modes  of  punishment.  I 
had  myself  learned  them  by  seeing  them  practiced,  and  many  times  at 
the  high-school  I  myself  had  been  ordered  to  hold  a  boy  across  my  back, 
being  somewhat  taller  and  stronger  than  some  of  the  rest. 

But  now  I  have  a  different  way  of  administering  punishment  in  my 
schools;  not  with  a  switch,  but  with  love  and  kindness,  and  I  think  I 
can  accomplish  more  with  kind  words  and  acts  than  with  the  rod.  This 
is  one  of  the  changes  I  have  experienced  since  having  come  to  America. 

Besides  teaching  languages,  I  also  gave  instruction  from  the  Bible, 
in  arithmetic  and  geography.    I  also  visited  the  parents  of  the  pupils, 


24 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


together  with  the  minister  of  the  village,  and  on  Sabbath  day  I  had  a 
large  class  of  ladies  in  the  Sunday-school. 

I  would  also  pay  visits  to  other  villages  and  preach  to  them  in  a 
very  simple  manner,  only  repeating  to  the  people  the  story  of  the  cross. 
While  engaged  in  this  manner  one  day,  I  read  in  my  Bible  the  12th 
chapter  of  Genesis.  This  gave  me  much  thought,  especially  the  passage 
where  the  Lord  said  to  Abraham,  ''Get  thee  out  of  thy  country  and  from 
thy  kindred  and  from  thy  father's  house  into  a  land  that  I  will  show 
thee."  My  strain  of  thought  on  this  matter  ran  in  this  channel:  "If 
Abraham  obeyed  this  command  of  the  Lord,  and  I  am  now  worship- 
ing the  same  Lord  as  Abraham  then  was  why  should  I  not  follow 
his  example,  now  reading  the  same  command?" 

I  consulted  Kasha  Sayad,  and  informed  him  of  my  intention  to  go 
nnewhere  where  I  could  prepare  for  Christian  work.  His  opinion  was, 
that  it  would  not  be  a  wise  step  for  me  to  take,  and  bade  me  go  to  a 
missionary  and  lay  the  matter  before  him.  I  did  so,  and  the  missionary 
gave  me  many  reasons  why  I  should  abandon  such  thoughts ;  but  I  was 
determined  to  rather  listen  to  God's  promises  than  man's  advices  and  go, 
whither  He  should  direct  me. 

In  July,  1889,  I  left  Oroomiah  with  not  more  than  what  amounts  to 
five  dollars  in  the  United  States,  and  not  knowing  where  I  should  finally 
land.  I  traveled  westward,  but  it  was  a  long  and  tedious  journey.  As 
I  had  no  means  to  hire  a  horse  or  mule  I  was  obliged  to  walk,  and 
for  the  sake  of  convenience  I  often  traveled  during  the  night,  it  being 
much  cooler. 

After  nineteen  days  of  traveling,  I  readied  the  first  railway  in  the 
Caucasus  in  Russia.  I  reached  the  first  railway  station  at  Akistafa. 
From  here  I  was  given  free  transportation  to  Tiflis.  There  some 
Christians  helped  me  on  to  Valadikokas.  After  having  arrived  at  this 
place  I  tried  to  work  and  go  to  school,  but  after  a  few  weeks  they  urged 
me  to  go  to  Berlin,  as  -they  thought  I  might  succeed  better  in  both. 
After  seven  or  eight  days  travel  I  reached  the  boundary  line  of  Russia. 
Here  I  bought  a  ticket  to  Berlin,  while  my  passport  was  in  the  office  for 
examination.  Soon  I  was  informed  that  I  could  not  leave  Russia,  as 
my  passport  was  defective.  I  was  imprisoned  for  three  days  without  food 
or  drink,  after  which  I  was  ordered  to  telegraph  to  St.  Petersburg 
for  a  permit  to  leave  the  country.  I  did  so,  and  was  obliged  to  pay  an 
exorbitant  sum  for  the  dispatch.  But  no  answer  came  from  St.  Peters- 
burg. I  was  now  informed  that  I  would  be  sent  to  Siberia.  It  seemed 
a  little  hard  to  me  at  first,  but  thinking  of  the  errand  upon  which  I  had 


PERSONAL  HISTORY.  25 

set  out  on  my  journey,  I  concluded  that  the  Lord  wanted  me  there,  if 
He  would  allow  me  to  be  sent  there.  I  consequently  told  the  officers 
that  I  was  ready  and  willing  to  go.  The  officers  obviously  knew  not 
what  to  make  of  this,  for  they  stared  at  me  as  though  they  considered 
me  a  lunatic.  They  wished  to  know  why  I  was  so  ready  and  willing 
to  go  to  such  a  dismal  country  as  Siberia.  I  told  them  that  if  my  Lord 
and  God  desired  me  to  go  there,  I  certainly  was  most  willing  to  go,  as  I 
sincerely  believed  that  He  was  in  Siberia  as  well  as  in  Berlin ;  that  years 
ago  my  father  had  been  sent  there  without  cause,  and  I  might  perchance(J 
meet  him  there.  When  they  saw  I  cared  so  little  whither  I  went,  they 
even  helped  me  on  to  Berlin. 

Here  I  was  in  Berlin,  the  great  German  capital,  not  being  able  to 
speak  or  even  understand  a  word  of  the  language.  But  through  God's 
kind  providence  I  encountered  a  young  man  who  was  able  to  speak  five 
or  six  different  languages,  namely  Turkish,  Syriac,  German,  etc.  He 
grew  very  friendly  to  me,  took  me  to  his  room,  provided  me  with  a  good 
place  to  live,  and  for  several  days  showed  me  the  sights  in  the  city.  He 
incidentally  spoke  of  me  to  a  friend  who  became  so  interested  as  to  ex- 
press a  desire  to  see  me.  We  consequently  took  supper  at  the  house  01  tins 
friend,  Mr.  L.  H.  O.  Schmidt,  west  62  Maasrein  Strasse  No.  31  Pa. 
Berlin,  one  evening,  and  by  means  of  an  interpreter  I  made  this  gentle- 
man acquainted  with  my  whole  history.  Mr.  Schmidt,  perhaps  noticing 
a  sad  expression  which  had  perchance  overspread  my  countenance,  bade 
me  be  of  good  cheer,  for  the  Lord  would  certainly  guide  me  and  provide 
for  me.  To  encourage  me  still  more,  he  asked  me  to  sit  between  himself 
and  Mrs.  Schmidt,  as  that,  he  thought,  would  make  me  feel  more  at 
home  with  them. 

When  we  arose  to  take  our  departure  from  this  hospitable  house, 
Mr.  Schmidt  requested  us  to  linger  a  few  moments  longer,  and  left  the 
room.  A  few  moments  later  he  re-entered,  and  handed  over  to  me  a  sum 
of  money  sufficient  to  go  from  Berlin  to  New  York,  at  the  same  time 
remarking  that  he  were  quite  certainyeven  if  I  remained  in  Berlin  at 
present,  I  would  certainly  desire  to  see  America  in  a  few  years  Hence, 
and  so  in  his  opinion  it  would  be  much  better  for  me  and  my  cause  to  rn 
there  at  cnce.  He  also  handed  me  a  letter  to  a  minister  at  Hamb' 
'  by  which  I  was  introduced,  and  he  requested  to  receive  me  and 
for  me  to  all  necessary  requisites  for  a  passage  to  New  York  C 

I  left  Berlin  and  reached  Hamburg  at  about  11  o'clock 
being  able  to  explain  to  any  one  where  I  wished  to  go.  T 
search  for  .he  dwelling  of  the  minister  to  whom  my  If 


26 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


tion  was  addressed.  I  found  the  place  at  last,  but  the  valet  insisted  upon 
seeing  my  letter  before  he  would  allow  me  to  go  into  his  house,  fearing 
probably  that  I  might  be  some  thief  or  robber  trying  to  get  admission. 
I,  however,  refused  to  have  my  letter  examined,  as  I  mistrusted  its  being 
returned  to  me.  There  was  nothing  left  for  me  to  do  but  to  go  back  to 
the  depot.  Here  I  found  every  door  locked  and  all  the  lights  ex- 
tinguished, and  set  out  to  walk  the  streets  until  morning.  But  even 
in  this  I  was  disturbed  by  patrolmen,  who  would  not  allow  it.  At  last 
I  found  a  place  where  there  was  a  cavity  under  the  sidewalk,  next  to 
a  basement  window.  I  crept  into  this  hole,  and  doubling  up  as  well 
;js  I  could  soon  fell  asleep.  When  I  awoke  I  was  so  stiff  and  numb,  from 
the  chilly  air  and  my  inconvenient  position,  I  could  scarcely  move.  I  got 
up  and  out  and  ran  along  the  streets  to  get  warm.  After  finding  that  the 
blood  in  my  body  was  once  more  circulating  freely,  I  returned  to  my 
hiding  place  and  slept  until  daylight.  I  now  returned  to  the  minister's 
dwelling,  and  he  himself  answering  my  rap  at  the  door,  I  handed  him 
my  letter.  He  was  greatly  surprised  at  seeing  me  and  learning  who  I 
was,  and  said  that  he  had  been  aware  of  my  coming',  but  had  not  ex- 
pected that  I  would  arrive  on  that  train.  He  kindly  ushered  me  into  the 
house,  however,  and  after  having  washed,  arranged  my  toilet  and  break- 
fasted, he  went  with  me  to  the  steamer  that  was  to  take  me  to  New 
York  City.  After  procuring  tickets  we  learned  that  the  steamer  would 
not  leave  until  two  days  later.  I  remained  with  the  reverend  gentleman 
these  two  days,  he  proving  very  kind  and  generous  to  me.  Our  con- 
versations, however,  were  very  limited,  as  it  had  to  be  carried  on  entirely 
by  making  use  of  the  natural  language — motions,  signs,  groans,  ex- 
pressions of  the  face,  etc. 

After  two  days,  I  boarded  an  ocean  steamer  for  New  York  City.  On 
the  first  and  second  day  of  the  voyage  the  weather  was  fine  and  the  sea 
tranquil  and  calm;  but  soon  it  became  rough  and  I  had  an  experience 
such  as  I  had  never  heard  of  before — I  grew  sea-sick.  During  my  misery 
I  sometimes  really  took  it  for  granted  that  all  good  Christian  people  had 
done  for  me  ever  since  I  had  left  home  had  been  done  merely  for  the 
urpose  of  severely  punishing  me  for  having  been  too  bold  and  forward, 
I  asked  the  JLord  in  prayer  to  grant  that  the  ship  might  capsize  and 
nd  so  all  my  sufferings  be  ended. 
:ng  our  ocean  voyage  all  passengers  on  board  of  the  steamer 
ited.    When  my  turn  came  I  had  hidden  away,  thinking  my 
cut  off.    I  was  compelled,  however,  to  ccme  forward 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


27 


and  allow  the  operation  to  be  performed  on  me,  whereupon  I  found  that 
it  was  not  so  bad  after  all. 

Eighteen  days  after  having  gone  aboard  the  steamer  we  arrived  in 
New  York  City.  In  Castle  Garden  we  were  asked  to  show  our  money, 
there  being  a  law  that  every  person  must  have  at  least  twenty-five 
dollars,  to  live  on  until  able  to  find  work,  should  he  wish  to  enter  the 
country ;  the  company  was  obliged  to  take  back  any  passenger  who  did 
not  possess  that  amount.  When  my  turn  came  to  go  through  the  gate, 
just  when  prepared  to  show  the  money  I  had  (amounting  to  about 
twenty-eight  cents),  the  officer  was  handed  a  letter  by  a  boy.  He  stepped 
just  a  little  to  one  side  to  quickly  peruse  the  letter,  but  in  the  meantime 
I  opened  the  gate  and  passed  through  unnoticed,  and  was  soon  lost  in 
the  crowd  to  any  searching  eye.,  I  walked  into  the  park  and  sat  down. 
While  looking  around  I  suddenly  espied  a  black  man  not  far  off.  This 
was  a  great  curiosity  to  me  who  had  never  before  seen  colored  people. 
I  felt  very  much  inclined  to  step  nearer  so  as  to  get  a  better  view  of  the 
man,  but  I  -dared  not.  Upon  noticing  many  people  passing  by  him 
without  scarcely  taking  any  notice  of  him,  I  also  took  heart  and  ap- 
proached the  black  man.  Seeing  that  his  face,  neck  and  arms  were  all 
black,  I  concluded  that  this  could  not  possibly  be  a  human  being.  Since 
then  I  have  met  many  negroes,  have  even  lived  among  them  for  a  year 
in  Virginia,  and  have  learned  to  esteem  some  of  them  as  thoroughly, 
consecrated  Christians. 

Here  I  was  once  more  all  alone  in  a  foreign  country,  without  home, 
friends,  acquaintances,  or  even  means  wherewith  to  support  myself,  al- 
most utterly  helpless,  as  I  could  not  even  make  myself  understood.  For 
three  days  and  nights  I  walked  the  streets  of  the  great  metropolis  with 
an  empty  stomach.  Towards  the  close  of  the  third  day  I  found  a  morsel 
of  bread  in  an  ash  barrel.  I  took  it  out,  cleaned  it  as  well  as  I  could,  and 
then  soaked  it  in  some  water  and  ate  it.  Not  long  after  I  also  met  a 
man  who  could  understand  oriental  languages.  This  man  proved  a 
great  blessing  to  me,  for  he  had  soon  learned  my  situation.  Feeling 
compassion  for  me,  he  fed  me  and  then  took  me  to  the  "Home  of 
Children's  Aid  Society,"  No.  247  East  Forty-fourth  street,  corner  Second 
avenue. 

The  superintendent  of  the  home,  after  hearing  the  circumstances, 
was  gladly  willing  to  admit  me  for  a  few  days  and  try  to  procure  me 
some  work,  it  being  against  the  rules  of  the  institution  to  permanently 
admit  persons  of  my  age.  In  connection  with  this  home  there  is  also  a 
brush  shop  where  crippled  boys  are  employed. 


28 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


I  was  directed  there  and  soon  set  to  work.  The  superintendent 
was  pleased  and  wished  to  retain  me,  so  I  worked  during  the  day  and  at- 
tended a  night  school  in  the  evening,  where  I  studied  the  English 
language. 

But  I  could  not  remain  in  this  place  always.*  So  I  told  the  superin- 
tendent that  I  would  rather  work  in  the  open  air  and  not  be  confined  so 
much  within  a  building.  Thereupon  he  sent  me  to  a  farm  in  New  Jersey. 
I  was  there  about  two  weeks  when  I  was  taken  ill  and  had  to  give  this 
up,  the  work  being  too  hard  for  me  as  it  consisted  chiefly  of  chopping 
wood,  it  being  in  the  midst  of  winter.  In  consequence  of  this  experience 
I  returned  to  my  former  occupation  in  the  brush  factory. 

One  day  a  lady  called  upon  the  superintendent  and  asked  him  if  he 
could  not  recommend  some  one  to  her  as  a  waiter.  I  happened  to  be  in 
the  room  just  then  and  the  superintendent  pointed  me  out  to  her.  The 
lady  inquired  whether  I  would  be  willing  to  accept  the  position.  I  cheer- 
fully answered  in  the  affirmative  and  immediately  accompanied  her  to  her 
home.  I  could  now  make  myself  understood  in  English,  somewhat, 
and  the  lady  promised  to  give  me  further  instruction.  She  was  a  sister 
to  a  physician,  Dr.  J.  H.  Cooley,  and  resided  at  Plainfield,  New  Jersey. 
I  was  in  her  service  for  three  months  and  was  pleased  with  my  work, 
which  consisted  in  waiting  at  the  table  and  helping  in  the  kitchen.  Dr. 
Cooley  also  had  a  sanitarium,  where  patients  were  housed  and  taken 
care  of.  I  am  much  indebted  to  the  doctor  for  kindness  in  treating  me 
as  pleasantly  as  he  did. 

After  three  months  stay  at  Plainfield,  I  deemed  it  advisable  to  go 
to  New  York  City,  there  to  improve  my  education ;  it  being,  however, 
two  months  previous  to  the  beginning  of  a  new  term  in  any  of  the 
schools,  I  took  recourse  to  Mr.  Mathews,*  at  that  time  superintendent  of 


*320  14th  Street,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  13th,  '99. 
Rev.  Isaac  Adams. 

Dear  Bro. — I  should  have  been  pleased  to  have  met  you  and  shaken 
you  by  the  hand.  I  sincerely  hope  that  when  you  visit  our  city  again 
that  I  shall  have  that  pleasure.  I  sat  up  last  night  till  nearly  12  o'clock 
reading  that  very  touching  and  instructive  book,  "Darkness  and  Day- 
break," and  my  heart  went  up  involuntarily  to  "Our  Father"  for  His 
blessings  on  your  efforts  to  lead  your  people  into  the  blessed  and  glorious 
light  of  the  children  of  God.  You  have  the  promise  "That  His  word 
shall  not  return  void,  but  shall  accomplish  that  whereunto  it  was  sent." 
Preach  the  Word.  Walk  in  the  light.  If  thine  eye  be  single,  thy  whole 
body  shall  be  full  of  light.  I  shall  be  glad  to  hear  from  you  at  any  time. 
Yours,  with  a  single  eye,  WM.  H.  MATHEWS. 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


29 


the  "Children's  Aid  Society,"  for  a  place  on  a  farm.  A  few  days  later 
another  boy  and  I  were  sent  to  a  farm  in  Orange  county,  New  Jersey, 
with  letters  of  recommendation  for  our  introduction.  We  unhappily 
left  the  train  at  a  station  twelve  miles  this  side  of  our  place  of  destina- 
tion. We  did  the  best  we  could  under  the  circumstances,  however,  stop- 
I  ping  at  the  depot  over  night  and  starting  out  afoot  next  morning.  Finally 
we  arrived  at  the  place  where  my  companion  had  to  leave  me,  as  he 
was  to  work  on  some  other  farm.  WTe  parted  and  I  trotted  on  alone. 
Presently  I  met  a  man  coming  towards  me  who  inquired  whither  I  was 
going.  I  showed  him  the  address  on  my  letter.  He  inquired  further, 
what  I  intended  to  do  there.  After  having  told  him,  he  informed  me 
that  this  farmer  had  moved  away,  but  that  he  had  been  looking  for  some 
help,  and  I  might  come  and  work  for  him.  I  inquired  about  the  hire, 
and  he  offered  fifteen  dollars  per  month.  I  asked  whether  or  not  any 
churches  were  in  his  neighborhood.  He  said  there  were  plenty  of  those 
things  round  about,  whereupon  I  inquired  into  his  religious  views.  He 
informed  me  of  being  a  Roman  Catholic  by  birth  and  education,  "but," 
said  he,  sneeringly,  "I  have  not  been  inside  of  a  church  for  forty  years." 
I  hereupon  offered  to  work  for  him  for  twelve  dollars  a  month,  pro- 
vided he  would  not  compel  me  to  work  on  Sundays.  He  was  satisfied, 
and  I  entered  upon  my  duties.  Later  on  I  learned  that  the  man  I  had 
been  sent  to,  lived  on  the  neighboring  farm,  and  was  a  very  nice  man ; 
not  a  very  ugly  fellow,  as  my  present  master  had  claimed  at  our  first 
meeting. 

My  occupation  on  this  farm  consisted  in  cutting  grass  and  milking 
cows,  of  which  the  farmer  owned  forty-five  heads.  Eighteen  of  them  I 
had  to  milk,  which  at  first  caused  such  a  strain  upon  the  knuckles  of  my 
hands  and  on.  my  wrists  that  I  would  wake  up  at  night  from  pain  in 
those  parts ;  but  I  soon  became  accustomed  to  it,  and  then  so  much  more 
enjoyed  drinking  my  fill  of  the  fresh  milk,  of  which  I  was  very  fond. 
When  once  I  had  mentioned  in  a  letter  to  my  relatives  at  home  that  my 
work,  among  other  things,  consisted  in  milking  cows,  they  wonderingly 
inquired  in  their  next  letter  where  in  America  the  women  might  be  and 
what  they  did,  as  in  Persia  all  this  kind  of  work  is  left  to  the  women  to 
perform. 

For  the  first  two  weeks  all  went  well  with  me  on  this  farm.  On 
Sunday  I  attended  a  Methodist  Church.  On  the  third  Sunday,  however, 
the  farmer  called  me  and  ordered  me  to  turn  the  crank  on  the  grind- 
stone for  him,  as  he  wished  to  sharpen  his  knife.  I  answered,  "No, 
today  is  Sunday."   Upon  hearing  this  he  cursed  me  and  said:  "I  would 


30 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


rather  sit  here  and  listen  to  the  dog-  barking  than  hear  that  minister 
preach." 

At  4  o'clock  in  the  morning  he  would  call  me  to  get  up  and  go 
to  work,  but  after  some  time  he  said,  "Ike,  you  must  get  up  at  3  o'clock, 
as  the  neighbors  are  out  at  that  time ;"  and  to  make  good  his  demand 
he  would  stamp  on  the  steps  of  the  stairway  and  pound  the  door,  calling 
"Ike,  Ike!"  with  an  occasional  curse  intermingled,  until  he  heard  me 
move  about. 

One  day  we  were  loading  hay  in  the  field.  My  master  was  on 
the  wagon,  I  stood  upon  the  ground  and  pitched  hay  to  him.  He  kept 
swearing  and  cursing  at  me,  trying  to  hurry  me  up.  This  provoked 
me,  and  I  began  to  throw  hay  upon  the  wagon  as  fast  as  I  could,  without 
looking  where  I  threw  it.  In  so  doing  it  happened  that  a  pitchfork  full 
oi  hay,  together  with  the  points  of  the  fork,  struck  him  on  the  chest. 
At  this  he  grew  furious,  jumped  down  from  the  wagon  to  the  ground 
and  tried  to  strike  me,  but  I  kept  out  of  his  reach. 

While  engaged  in  scattering  hay  upon  a  time,  I  came  upon  a  heap 
in  which  there  was  a  bee's  nest.  I  noticed  it  in  time,  cautiously  went  by 
and  left  it  untouched.  The  farmer,  however,  coming  after  me,  but  not 
seeing  the  bees,  scattered  the  hay  about.  Of  course  the  bees  were  upon 
him  in  an  instant,  and  stung  him  all  over  his  face  and  hands.  This 
induced  him  to  curse  furiously  at  me  again  for  not  having  warned  him ; 
but  I  quietly  remonstrated  that  the  bees  were  stinging  him  for  his 
wicked  blaspheming,  as  I  had  passed  those  same  bees  and  they  had  not 
molested  me  in  the  least. 

After  the  third  week  the  farmer  ordered  me  to  leave,  as  he  did 
not  require  my  services  any  longer.  I  was  willing  to  go,  but  demanded 
my  pay.  This  he  refused  to  give  me  until  I  threatened  to  go  to  law 
about  it.  Then  he  wished  me  to  continue.  I  did  so  until  the  end  of  the 
month,  when  he  gave  me  twelve  dollars  and  offered  fifteen  dollars  for 
the  following  month,  but  I  had  quite  enough  of  this  and  answered,  "No, 
I  would  not  work  for  you  any  longer  for  fifty  dollars  a  month."  I  left 
him  immediately  and  returned  to  New  York  City. 

Mr.  B.  W.  Tice,  superintendent  of  the  West  Side  Boys'  Lodging 
House  of  the  Children's  Aid  Society,  wrote  a  letter  to  Gen.  Armstrong 
for  admission  to  the  Hampton  Normal  Institution,  of  which  Gen.  Arm- 
strong was  principal,  and  the  answer  was  favorable ;  after  considering 
the  matter,  and  also  meeting  Gen.  Armstrong,  I  decided  to  go  to  Vir- 
ginia. 

Here  I  worked  in  the  mornings  at  the  tailor's  trade,  and  in  the 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


31 


afternoon  and  evening  I  went  to  the  school,  where  I  enjoyed  my 
work  and  am  much  indebted  to  the  teachers  and  all  connected  with  the 
[schools  for  their  help  and  kindness  shown  towards  me. 

While  here  I  received  a  letter  from  Kasha  Sayad,  of  Persia,  stating 
that  the  house  or  church  in  which  they  were  worshiping  was  taken  by 
the  authorities  and  given  to  the  people  who  belonged  to  the  Nestorian 
Church,  and  who  did  not  belong  the  the  Evangelical  church ;  and  I  trans- 
lated the  letter  and  sent  it  to  the  Presbyterian  Foreign  Mission  Board, 
in  New  York,  as  Kasha  Sayad  had  also  requested  me  in  that  letter  to 
do  all  I  could  for  them  in  stating  tlie  matter  before  such  as  loved  the 
cause,  and  try  to  raise  funds  for  erecting  a  house  of  worship  for  them. 

Arthur  Mitchell,  D.  D.,  Secretary  Presbyterian  Board  Foreign  Mis- 
sions, sent  me  to  Mr.  Moody's  school,  at  Chicago,  where  he  paid  my 
whole  expense. 

Here  I  tried  very  hard  to  get  the  money  for  the  building  of  the 
church  by  speaking  and  lecturing,  but  this  was  very  difficult  as  I  could 
not  speak  the  language  very  plainly  as  yet,  therefore,  I  left  this  matter 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Mitchell,  to  whom  I  am  much  indebted  for  his 
great  help  in  this  matter. 

After  this  I  tried  to  support  myself  and  wrote  to  Dr.  Mitchell  about 
it.  He  said  I  could  do  so,  but  such  expenses  as  I  could  not  meet  he 
would  cover.  But  from  1892  on  I  succeeded  in  paying  all  my  bills,  but 
the  doctor  had  spent  several  hundred  dollars  towards  my  support.  At 
one  time  I  told  him  I  wished  to  pay  it  back,  but  he  said:  "I  have  not 
done  it  for  your,  but  for  Christ's  sake,  and,  therefore,  I  would  always 
be  glad  to  hear  of  your  success." 

I  also  spent  one  year  at  the  Garret  Biblical  Institute,  at  Evanston, 
111.  While  here  I  met  Rev.  A.  T.  Wilkinson,  a  fellow  student  from 
Brantford,  Can.,  and  who  ever  since  has  been  an  intimate  friend. 

In  the  summer  of  1892,  he  asked  me  to  go  with  him  and  speak  in 
churches  in  Canada,  which  I  did,  he  arranging  the  meetings  for  me. 

The  Brantford  Courier  of  August  15,  1892,  reads  thus: 

At  the  Wickliffe  Hall  last  evening,  Mr.  Isaac  Adams,  a  native  of 
Persia,  gave  a  very  interesting  address.  This  address  was  Mr.  Adams' 
last  one  in  Canada,  as  he  leaves  for  New  York  today,  where  he  will  stay 
one  week  and  then  proceed  to  Chicago. 

Mr.  Adams  has  been  in  Canada  only  forty-five  days,  and  during 
that  time  has  given  forty-three  lectures  on  Persia,  its  religions,  customs, 
etc.  He  expresses  himself  as  highly  delighted  with  his  visit  in  Brant- 
ford, and  with  the  kind  manner  in  which  he  has  been  entertained  during 


32 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN 


his  stay  here.  A  number  of  Persian  curiosities  were  exhibited  and  were 
fully  described  by  Mr.  Adams  to  all  who  wished  to  see  them. 

While  in  this  country  I  wrote  to  my  home  continually,  and  was 
glad  to  hear  that  my  brothers  were  converted;  so  I  offered  to  pay  their 
expenses  to  this  country  if  they  would  prepare  themselves  for  missionary 
work,  to  which  they  consented.  But  owing  to  the  cholera  their  journey 
was  delayed  for  a  while,  but  at  last,  in  1893,  they  succeeded  in  coming  to 
this  country.  Three  of  my  brothers — Abraham,  David  and  Jacob,  to- 
gether with  a  young  man  named  Paul  John,  who  was  13  years  of  age 
and  who  was  brother  in-law  to  my  brother,  came  to  this  country. 
After  I  had  remained  here  five  years,  and  studied  in  different  institu- 
tions and  lectured  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  also 
saw  my  brothers  admitted  to  different  institutions,  I  deemed  it  necessary 
to  go  back  to  Persia  and  preach  the  gospel  to  those  whom  I  loved. 

When  at  Patterson,  N.  J.,  where  I  had  spoken  on  Sunday,  I  was 
on  Monday  introduced  to  two  gentlemen  from  Kampen,  Netherlands, 
who  were  taking  a  post-graduating  course  at  Princeton.  These  gentle- 
men were  Messrs.  Smidt  and  Wielenga.  Our  short  travel  from  Patter- 
son to  New  York  was  very  pleasant,  and  Mr.  G.  Wielenga  said  that  he 
did  not  know  what  it  was  to  be  a  stranger  in  a  strange  country  until 
after  he  came  to  America.  Therefore  he  urged  me  to  visit  his  parents 
and  the  school  at  Kampen,  Netherlands,  on  my  way  to  Persia.  He  also 
gave  me  a  letter  of  introduction. 

During  my  five  years  stay  in  this  country  I  had  sold  4,500  pictures 
of  myself  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

On  my  departure  I  had  a  draft  for  $900  with  me  and  $100  in  cash. 
1  left  New  York  November  7,  1894,  on  the  steamer  City  of  Paris  for 
Southampton. 

I  reached  London  November  14th,  and  here  I  spent  one  day  and 
went  to  the  British  Bible  Society,  etc. 

On  November  17th  I  reached  Kampen,  Netherlands.  I  found  my 
way  to  Professor  Wielenga's  house,  where  I  was  cordially  welcomed.  I 
was  requested  to  speak  that  very  night  to  the  students  of  the  Theological 
Seminary.  The  following  letter  will  explain  my  short  visit  in  the  Nether- 
lands. This  letter  was  written  by  Rev.  B.  Wielenga,  a  brother  of  Rev.  G. 
Wielenga,  to  the  public  in  America  : 

While  I  am  writing  these  lines,  our  dear  friend  Adams  has  probably 
approached  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  and  is  nearer  to  his  native  country 
than  to  us.  His  coming  and  staying  in  our  midst,  as  also  his  departure 
from  us,  has  been  as  a  passing  dream,  but  a  dream  that  has  left  a  re- 


33 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


35 


reshing  influence.  An  influence  not  only  felt  at  my  home,  where  he 
tayed,  but  also  by  several  churches  in  our  country,  and  by  thousands 
mo  heard  his  simple,  touching  words. 

His  arrival  was  unexpected  and  therefore  the  more  surprising.  His 
greeableness  and  sincerity,  and  the  many  cordial  letters  of  introduction 
:cm  several  of  our  ministers,  soon  made  him  very  intimate  with  us. 
md  when,  at  the  request  of  the  faculty,  he  addressed  us  in  the  chapel 
f  our  school  and  told  us  of  the  dark  night  that  prevails  in  Persia,  and  of 
is  intention  to  bring  it  the  light  of  the  Gospel,  then  our  hearts  all  beat 
rith  sympathy  for  him  and  his  work.  We  admired  his  courage.  At 
tie  close  of  his  address  we  all  gathered  around  him  to  press  his  hand  and 
o  wish  him  God-speed.  Professor  Bavinck  in  turn  addressed  him,  and 
ssured  him  of  our  support  and  intercession.  I  still  imagine  Brother 
idams  dressed  in  his  rich  Persian  costume,  among  us,  as  he  gained  our 
ympathy  by  his  friendly  smile  and  courtesy. 

At  the  request  of  the  president,  Dr.  Bavinck,  he  again  spoke  to  us  on 
tie  manners  and  customs  of  his  people.  Mr.  Aelders  translated  the 
rords  and  also  succeeded  in  giving  us  the  sentiments  of  Mr.  Adams.  It 
vras  no  surprise  that  the  consistory  of  our  congregation  should  allow 
im  to  speak  in  the  church  on  Sunday  evening. 

The  short  sketch  of  his  personal  experiences,  the  vivid  presenta- 
ion  of  the  misery  in  which  Persia  has  sunken,  but  especially  the  words 
poken  on  2  Cor.  8 15,  made  a  deep  impression  on  the  people,  and  assured 
s  that  there  will  be  many  prayers  offered  for  Persia  and  the  heathen 
/orld.  During  the  week  Mr.  Adams  again  spoke  in  one  of  our  halls, 
mere  many  of  all  classes  and  religious  beliefs  attentively  listened  to 
im. 

The  remainder  of  the  time  the  Persian  Missionary  stayed  with  us, 
e  visited  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zeeland,  where  he  spoke  in 
tie  principal  cities.  I  would  simply  repeat  the  same  thing  over  again  if 
should  follow  him  step  by  step,  for  everywhere  he  received  the  same 
Dken  of  love  and  cordiality.  Everywhere  open  homes,  open  purses  and 
pen  hearts.  Mr.  Adams  has  a  rare  tact  of  making  himself  at  home 
mong  strangers ;  by  his  artless  manner  he  soon  becomes  intimate.  Prob- 
bly  this  is  because  he  has  visited  so  many  places  in  America,  has  been 
itroduced  in  so  various  circles  and  been  so  heartily  received  by  a 
lultitude  of  friends.  He  is  well  accustomed  to  the  platform  and  knows 
.ow  to  hold  his  audience. 

The  fishermen  of  Scheveningen  he  addressed  differently  from  the 
ducated  audiences  of  the  capital  and  the  plainer  people  of  Maassluis 
rom  those  of  busy  Rotterdam ;  but  the  result  was  the  same.  Because  I 
ad  many  friends  in  the  province  of  Holland,  I  had  the  privilege  of  ac- 
ompanying  and  introducing  Mr.  Adams.  *******  Als0 
mong  our  pastors  his  reception  was  hearty.  Rev.  Proosdy  introduced 
im  in  Leiden  and  Rev.  Donner,  the  missionary  director,  exhorted  the 
ongregation  to  prayer.  In  the  Hague,  Scheveningen,  Maassluis,  Rot- 
erdam,  Amsterdam  and  Zwolle  he  was  everywhere  cheerfully  intro- 
uced.    In  many  other  places  large  crowds  assembled  to  hear  the 


36 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Persian  missionary.  Many  tears  were  shed  and  much  compassion  and 
sympathy  expressed. 

On  the  nth  of  December,  I  accompanied  Mr.  Adams  to  Zutfen, 
where  he  parted  from  us  to  go  to  Berlin  in  the  evening. 

Calm  and  courageous,  in  peaceful  reliance  on  his  God,  he  approached 
his  difficult  task.  Although  he  was  well  aware  that  his  life  is  threatened 
on  every  hand  in  his  native  country,  trusting  on  the  Lord  his  God  he  be- 
gan his  journey,  knowing  that  with  Him  he  can  press  through  a  band 
of  robbers  and  jump  over  a  wall.  Gladly  would  we  have  had  him  remain 
with  us  still  longer.  His  stay  was  very  short  and  everything  hurried. 
But — and  this  conviction  we  respect — the  Persian  people  are  in  need 
of  the  Gospel ;  their  souls  are  in  prison.  Pie  told  us  that  if  God  spared 
him  we  might  expect  him  in  1896,  when  he  would  return  to  America 
in  company  with  two  or  three  of  his  countrymen.  We  believe  that  God 
is  with  Mr.  Adams,  and  that  through  him  He  will  glorify  His  name. 

I  said  Mr.  Adams  varied  his  style  to  suit  his  audience,  but  I  must 
add  that  it  had  everywhere  the  same  tone  of  child-like  reliance  on  God,, 
of  an  honest,  strong  faith,  and  a  deep  conviction  of  his  own  weakness. 

His  request  that  the  Americans  should  pray  for  him  will  surely  find 
a  hearing.    Many  of  our  people  are  interceding  for  him,  that  is  sure. 

Great  treasures  he  did  not  receive  from  our  poor  people,  but  there 
were  given  him  many  mites  like  unto  that  offered  by  the  widow  of  old. 
Several  poor  children  brought  their  savings  to  him  at  our  home,  and 
many  needy  women  took  pleasure  in  giving  a  trifle  to  his  work.  Such 
gifts  God  will  bless. 

May  God  spare  the  life  of  Mr.  Adams  and  grant  that  his  work  be 
blessed;  may  He  use  him  for  the  coming  of  His  kingdom  and  the  glory 
of  His  name — then  will  our  prayers  be  answered. 

My  hearty  salutation, 

B.  WIELENGA. 

Kampen,  Dec.  17,  '94. 

While  in  the  Netherlands  I  received  about  $300  in  collections  and 
gifts.  And  also  the  Lord  has  given  me  since  many  warm-hearted  friend.1 
and  110  words  can  express  my  gratitude  to  the  friends  and  professors 
in  the  Netherlands. 

From  the  Netherlands  I  went  to  Berlin,  Germany,  where  I  was  glac 
to  meet  my  friend  Mr.  Schmidt,  who  had  paid  my  fare  from  Berlin  I 
New  York,  in  1889.  He  was  delighted  to  see  me  and  to  learn  of  my  sue 
cess,  but  the  difficulty  was  that  I  could  not  speak  German  and  he  couli 
not  speak  English.  So  we  had  to  find  an  interpreter  and  we  called  01 
the  American  ambassador  at  Berlin  through  whose  kindness  we  wer. 
able  to  have  a  conversation.  At  the  same  time  I  spoke  about  counter 
signing  my  passport,  and,  after  the  ambassador  learned  my  name,  h 
said,  "It  is  a  pity  your  name  is  Isaac  Adams,  as  it  sounds  like  a  Jewisl 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


37 


bame,  and  no  Jews  are  allowed  to  pass  through  Russia."  He  wrote 
jme  a  special  letter,  and  another  man  and  Mr.  Schmidt  went  with  me 
to  the  Russian  ambassador,  and,  at  last,  through  a  good  deal  of  talking 
and  explanation,  he  countersigned  my  passport. 

The  following  day  Mr.  Schmidt  bought  my  ticket  from  Berlin  to 
Alexandrowa,  and  he  also  gave  me  some  money.  Then  I  took  the  train 
for  Alexandrowa;  from  there  I  bought  my  ticket  to  Valadikokas. 

One  evening  I  had  to  stop  over  in  a  village  to  change  cars,  but,  as 
I  had  some  money  with  me,  I  did  not  wish  to  go  to  any  hotel,  and  I  staid 
in  the  station,  which  was  very  large  and  had  all  kinds  of  accommodations. 
At  about  10  o'clock  all  was  quiet  and  the  lights  were  out,  and  I  fell  asleep 
in  a  chair.  As  I  awoke  and  saw  nobody,  I  became  afraid  and  tried  to  get 
out,  but  every  door  was  locked.  At  about  half  past  tb^e  in  the  morn- 
ing I  saw  a  man  come  who  opened  the  doors  and  lighted  the  lamp,  and 
then  brought  in  some  images  and  put  them  upon  a  platform.  A  crowd  of 
men  came  in  and  bowed  before  these  images  and  kissed  them  and  went 
through  all  kinds  of  ceremonies.  All  this  time  I  was  awake,  but  ap- 
peared to  be  sleeping.  After  awhile  I  also  stood  up,  and  they  came  and 
asked  me  why  I  did  not  bow  before  the  images  and  kiss  the  cross,  etc. 
I  told  them  I  did  not  believe  in  it.  Upon  hearing  this  they  became  very 
angry  and  wanted  to  punish  me,  but  very  soon  my  train  came  and  I 
went  on  to  Valadikokas.  Here  I  rested  a  few  days  and  had  the  privilege 
of  preaching  several  times.  At  about  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  I  saw 
a  multitude  of  people  passing  along  the  street.  I  inquired  what  it  meant, 
and  was  told  that  they  had  the  image  of  Holy  Mary  and  took  it  to  the 
houses  to  bless  the  people.  Some  have  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  money  to 
have  the  image  brought  into  the  house  as  they  are  wicked  and  Holy  Mary 
will  not  wish  to  be  taken  into  these  wicked  houses ;  therefore,  they  have 
to  pay  in  order  to  be  equal  with  the  good  people,  and  in  some  instances 
the  men  carrying  the  image  will  pass  by  the  house  and  will  say  Mother 
Mary  does  not  want  to  go  into  that  house  as  the  people  are  wicked. 

From  here  I  started  for  Tifiis  on  a  four  days'  journey,  but  I  took  a 
much  faster  way,  namely  I  took  a  carriage  from  Tifiis,  which  was  driven 
Dy  fast  mail  horses  and  every  two  hours,  or  when  we  had  passed  over 
ifteen  or  twenty  miles,  the  horses  and  driver  would  be  changed.  I  made 
:he  journey,  traveling  day  and  night,  in  twenty-four  hours. 

In  Tifiis  I  also  had  the  privilege  of  meeting  some  Nestorians,  with 
whom  I  was  glad  to  speak  concerning  their  welfare  and  salvation  through 
[esus  Christ ;  and  many  people  came  to  see  me,  some  living  thirty  miles 
away,  and  they  wanted  me  to  stay  and  preach  among  them.   Even  after 


38 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


being  in  America  again  I  received  letters  from  them  asking  me  to  come, 
saying  they  would  get  me  permission  to  do  so  from  the  government. 

I  left  Tiflis  for  Erivan.  Here  my  passport  was  taken  and  counter- 
signed, as  in  former  cities.  And  here  also  I  met  two  Mohammedan 
Sayids,  who  were  returning  to  Persia,  and  we  traveled  together  and  spoke 
over  many  subjects,  especially  religion.  On  this  journey  from  Erivan 
to  Aras,  the  Persian  frontier,  we  came  across  a  number  of  corpses  lying 
on  the  roadside,  where  the  robbers  had  left  them  after  plundering  and 
killing  them.  But  we  were  not  molested  as  we  traveled  with  mail  horses 
and  also  the  government  mail  and  two  soldiers. 

At  last  we  reached  the  Persian  frontier,  where  our  passports  were 
looked  over  and  returned  to  us.   Here  the  Sayids  left  me. 

While  my  passport  was  being  examined  in  the  government  office, 
I  spoke  in  a  very  broken  Persian  language,  so  as  to  make  them  believe 
that  I  was  a  foreigner,  as  my  passport  showed  me  to  be. 

I  asked  the  officers  if  the  roads  were  dangerous.  They  said  they 
were,  and  I  asked  them  to  let  me  have  a  man  to  go  with  me.  They  re- 
plied that  it  was  very  dangerous  to  travel  with  one  man  alone,  and 
offered  to  give  me  two  men  as  an  escort.  So  the  two  men  traveled  with 
me,  and  at  the  same  time  I  met  four  Armenians  who  begged  leave 
to  join  us.  I  gladly  complied  with  their  request.  The  first  night  we 
stopped  at  a  village  where  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  were  theives  and 
robbers. 

During  all  this  time  I  feigned  to  be  a  foreigner,  and  even  the 
Armenians  did  not  recognize  me  as  being  a  Persian.  After  supper  I 
stepped  out  of  doors  and  there  overheard  some  men  making  plans  to  kill 
the  four  Armenians ;  but  they  were  afraid  to  do  so  on  my  account,  think- 
ing that  I  was  a  foreigner.  During  that  night  I  had  a  soldier  on  each 
side  of  me,  resting  his  gun  on  my  body  and  protecting  me  in  this  manner, 
and  the  four  Armenians  were  also  very  near  to  me. 

All  went  well,  but  a  few  things  were  stolen,  and  in  the  morning 
we  continued  our  journey.  Towards  evening  of  tliat  day  we  came  to  a 
river,  and  while  fording  it  the  two  soldiers,  who  were  supposed  to  pro- 
tect me,  pointed  their  guns  at  me  and  demanded  money;  at  this  I  im- 
mediately grasped  my  two  revolvers  which  I  had  with  me  and  pointed 
them  at  the  soldiers ;  then  they  said  they  were  only  joking,  and  I  told 
them  to  walk  on  ahead,  which  they  did.  The  revolvers  I  had  with  me 
were  not  loaded,  but  at  the  next  station  I  loaded  them. 

After  two  more  days  journey  we  reached  Khoi,  where  the  two 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


39 


soldiers  left  me.  I  now  decided  to  travel  with  mail  horses  again ;  that  is, 
ve  changed  horses  every  two  hours,  and  journeyed  on  more  rapidly. 

But  when  I  reached  the  next  village,  I  was  so  sore  and  stiff  from 
;onstantly  riding  horse-back  that  I  decided  to  remain  here  for  a  few 
lays  and  give  up  horse-back  riding,  namely,  this  fast  way  of  horse- 
back riding.  From  here  I  telegraphed  to  Oroomiah  and  advised  my 
"riends  of  my  coming.  After  a  few  days,  I  hired  some  other  horses  and 
vent  slower.    From  this  village  I  left  for  Gavelan. 

In  Gavelan  I  met  my  brother  Joseph,  with  some  friends  and  relatives 
vho  had  come  to  meet  me.  So  we,  about  forty  in  number,  journeyed 
:ogether  and  reached  Oroomiah  on  the  following  day.  I  was  glad  to  see 
nany  of  my  friends  and  acquaintances.  But  one  of  the  saddest  things 
'or  me  was  the  death  of  my  mother,  which  had  occurred  during  my 
ibsence.  But  I  hope  and  believe  that  she  died  a  Christian  death,  as  her 
ast  words  were,  "All  my  hopes  are  in  Jesus."  Thanks  be  to  God  for  the 
blessed  hope  that  we  may  meet  again  in  the  world  of  immortality. 

After  a  few  days  rest  at  home  and  waiting  upon  many  callers,  1 
started  out  to  visit  my  friends  and  those  who  had  visited  me. 

As  I  went  through  the  cities  and  the  villages,  I  found  that  there  was 
>reat  need  for  the  blessed  Gospel.  I  conversed  with  the  people  and  on 
Sunday  I  preached  in  different  villages  and  at  different  houses. 

The  people  of  Borashan,  a  neighboring  village,  came  and  asked  me 
:o  establish  a  Christian  school  in  their  village.  They  also  went  to  the 
lord  of  the  village  and  asked  his  permission,  and  then  presented  me  a 
list  containing  all  the  names  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  village,  except  one 
iamily.  The  lord  said  if  this  one  family  did  not  submit  to  this  they  would 
have  to  leave,  and  then  they  submitted  and  I  established  a  school  there, 
and  today  almost  all  the  people  are  heartily  rejoicing  in  the  progress  of 
Dur  good  work.  I  found  also  a  very  good  helper,  who  visited  continually 
the  people  of  Borashan  and  Sanger,  also  Eriava,  so  I  employed  him  as 
a  teacher  and  helper  while  I  was  visiting  the  other  places ;  and  finally 
I  was  able  to  find  some  helpers  who  had  been  educated  somewhat  by  the 
English  and  Presbyterian  missionaries.  When  they  came  to  me  I  gave 
them  some  Biblical  instructions  and  then  placed  them  at  the  head  of  some 
of  these  schools,  and  paid  them  a  small  salary.  So  the  work  continued 
nicely,  and  I  spent  my  time  visiting  the  schools  and  encouraging  the 
teachers  and  expounding  the  Word  of  God. 

All  the  expense  of  such  a  school,  including  fuel,  schoolbooks,  room 
rent,  teacher's  salary,  etc.,  will  not  exceed  ten  dollars  a  month.  My  ex- 
pense of  each  school  has  very  seldom  exceeded  five  dollars  a  month. 


40 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


41 


Mar  Shimmon,  the  civil  and  spiritual  head  of  the  Nestorians,  resides 
in  the  village  of  Kochanues.  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan.  V&e  is  the 
spiritual  overseer  of  all  the  Nestorian  churches  of  Persia  and  Kurdistan. 
Once  a  year  he  sends  one  of  his  relatives  to  visit  the  churches  of  Oroo- 
miah, for  the  purpose  of  receiving  the  contributions  of  the  brethren,  and 
also  to  inquire  as  to  the  condition  of  the  church  itself,  and  any  matters 
in  question  are  laid  before  him  by  the  bishops  and  priests.  When  I 
arrived  at  Oroomiah  his  step-brother  was  there,  who  became  very 
friendly  to  me,  but  died  within  two  months  after. 

On  May  29th,  1895,  I  left  Oroomiah,  in  order  to  pay  a  visit  to  the 
Patriarch,  the  object  of  which  was  to  have  an  interview  with  him,  in 
order  to  get  his  permission  to  work  among  his  people  as  all  the  other 
missionaries  do.  A  second  object  was  evangelistic  work  among  the 
Kurds  and  Nestorians.  After  two  hours  of  riding  on  the  plain,  we  came 
to  Anhar,  a  village  in  the  mountains.  Here  we  were  told  we  would  be 
killed  by  the  Kurd  robbers  and  murderers  if  we  should  continue  our 
journey.  We  had  now  to  decide  what  to  do — to  go  on  or  return  home. 
Finally,  trusting  in  the  Lord,  we  decided  to  go  on.  For  almost  four 
hours  we  rode  at  a  gallop,  fearing  an  attack  by  the  Kurds.  We  arrived 
at  Mavana,  however,  where  we  spent  the  night.  The  next  morning  a 
discouraging  report  came  that  the  roads  were  in  bad  condition,  and 
that  several  had  been  killed  two  days  previous.  Nevertheless,  trusting 
in  the  Lord,  I  continued  with  my  servant,  and  after  a  few  hours  journey 
we  reached  the  Turkish  frontier.  Here  I  was  stopped  and  told  I  could 
not  pass.  With  the  aid  of  a  little  gold,  judiciously  administered,  I  over- 
came this  difficulty. 

I  arrived  at  Marbeeshoo  about  9  o'clock  in  the  evening.  This  is  a 
large  Nestorian  village,  which  contains  a  church  850  years  old,  built  of 
very  thick  stones  and  having  a  very  heavy  stone  door  about  three  feet 
and  six  inches  high.  The  next  morning  I  continued  on  my  journey  and 
reached  Dizza  about  6  o'clock  in  the  evening.  Immediately  after  our 
arrival  the  police  came  and  ordered  me  to  give  an  account  of  myself. 
I  showed  him  my  American  passport  and  told  him  where  I  intended  to 
go.  The  police  were  not  satisfied  with  this,  however,  and  after  investi- 
gating our  baggage,  even  our  clothing,  he  took  our  passport  and  went  to 
the  Kaimakam  (the  vice  governor).  Afterwards  a  few  Zaptiehs  (con- 
stables) came  to  guide  us  to  the  city,  and  we  were  told  that  the  Mustas- 
sarif,  or  governor,  was  telegraphed  to  about  our  arrival  and  we  would 
have  to  wait  there  until  an  answer  was  received.  The  next  morning 
the  reply  came,  back  from  Valy  Pasha,  the  ruler  at  Van,  to  detain  the 


42 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


travelers  until  advice  was  obtained  from  Constantinople.  Upon  this  the 
authorities  at  Dizza  placed  me  in  confinement,  under  the  charge  of 
being  a  spy  sent  out  by  the  United  States  and  also  on  my  way  to  the 
Patriarch  to  stir  him  up  against  the  Turkish  government.  The  prison 
was  kept  guarded  by  two  soldiers.  Meantime,  I  was  afraid  they  would 
put  me  to  death,  so  I  wrote  a  letter  addressed  to  my  brother  in  Oroomiah. 
in  which  I  wrote  the  number  of  my  passport  and  my  citizenship  paper, 
and  asked  him  to  telegraph  the  United  States  Ambassador  at  Teheran. 
This  letter  I  gave  to  my  servant,  asking  him  to  bribe  a  man  to  carry  this 
message,  and  also  telling  him  to  have  him  put  the  message  into  a  loaf 
of  bread,  of  which  he  took  several. 

I  was  in  terrible  torment  every  hour  of  the  day.  I  was  in  mortal 
terror,  and  expected  to  be  put  to  death  at  almost  any  minute.  The 
messenger,  after  being  stopped  and  searched  several  times  and  forced  to 
give  up  all  his  bread  but  one  precious  loaf,  which  contained  the  message, 
at  last  delivered  the  message  to  my  brother.  In  the  letter  I  made  an 
agreement  with  the  messenger  that,  if  he  succeeded  in  reaching  my 
brothers  in  two  days,  he  should  receive  a  large  sum  of  money.  If  it 
would  take  him  three  days  he  was  to  get  less,  and  if  four  days,  still  less. 
Consequently,  the  messenger  hurried  and  succeeded  in  delivering  the 
message  in  two  days.  My  brother  had  immediately  telegraphed  to  the 
American  Ambassador  at  Teheran.  Various  means  were  instituted  to 
secure  my  release,  through  the  good  offices  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  kindness  of  the  English  counseller  at  Tabriz  and  at  Van.  The  police 
at  Dizza  at  first  denied  that  any  such  person  was  confined,  but  finding 
that  the  case  had  gained  such  publicity,  and  fearing  trouble,  they  quietly 
released  me.    In  the  meantime,  I  was  kept  in  prison. 

The  following,  clipped  from  the  "Banner  of  Truth,"  a  religious 
periodical  published  in  the  United  States,  has  some  bearing  upon  this 
matter : 

ISAAC  ADAMS'  ARREST. 
[banner  of  truth.] 

Mr.  Isaac  Adams,  of  Persia,  who  has  given  us  some  outline  of  his 
work  among  his  own  people,  was  arrested  while  on  a  journey  with  his 
servant  and  thrown  into  a  prison  by  the  Governor  of  a  Turkish  province. 
Information  of  this  was  sent  by  Rev.  M.  Bagdasarian,  a  fellow  mis- 
sionary laboring  in  Urmi,  in  the  interest  of  the  disciples  of  Christ.  He 
expresses  grave  fears  as  to  the  fate  of  Mr.  Adams  and  requests  us  to 
urge  the  United  States  Government  to  use  its  good  offices  for  his  re- 
lease. Our  minister  at  Constantinople  has  communicated  with  the  Turk- 
ish office  of  foreign  affairs,  and  they  disclaim  and  deny  all  knowledge  of 


•A  «  •  • 


Telegram  of  English  missionary  sent  to  British  Consul  at  Van,  Turkey, 
requesting  his  aid  for  the  x-elease  of  Isaac  Adams, 
sent  June,  1895. 


44  PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  arrest.  But  knowing  the  bitter  feeling  against  Christianity,  and 
especially  against  native  converts,  we  would  call  upon  all  concerned  in  the 
welfare  of  Christianity  to  carry  this  to  the  throne  of  grace  and  pray  God, 
who  has  all  men's  hearts  in  His  hand,  to  deliver  him  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Turkish  lion. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  communication  from  the  State  De- 
partment respecting  it : 

Department  of  State, 
Washington,  July  16,  1895. 

Rev.  John  C.  Voorhis,  Hackensach,  N.  J. 

Sir:  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  12th 
inst.,  requesting  the  good  offices  of  this  department  to  secure  the  re- 
lease of  Rev.  Isaac  Adams,  an  American  missionary,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  arrested  by  the  Turkish  authorities  at  Dizza  Gavar. 

This  case  has  already  been  acted  upon  by  this  department  on  a  tele- 
gram from  the  United  States  Minister  at  Teheran.  On  June  nth  our 
minister  at  Constantinople  was  telegraphed  to  protest  against  arrest  and 
to  demand  prompt  orders  to  local  Governor  for  Mr.  Adams'  release.  A 
telegram  from  Mr.  Terrell,  dated  the  nth  of  the  present  month,  states 
that  he  is  informed  by  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  that  Mr.  Adams 
has  not  been  arrested  at  Dizza  Gavar,  and  that  he  is  not  in  the  village 
of  Kotchanues.    I  am,  sir,  Your  obedient  servant, 

ALEVY  A.  ADEE, 
Acting  Secretary. 


MEMORIAL  OF  ISAAC  ADAMS. 
Making  Claim  for  Losses  and  Injuries  Against  the  Turkish 

Government. 
STATE  OF  MICHIGAN  COUNTY  OF  KENT.  ss. 

Isaac  Adams  of  the  City  of  Grand  Rapids  being  first  duly  sworn 
deposes  and  says  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  and  makes  this 
affidavit  for  and  in  his  own  behalf. 

1.  That  he  was  born  on  the  28th  day  of  November,  1872,  in  Oroo- 
miah,  Persia,  and  is  now  twenty-six  years  of  age.  That  he  is  now  a 
resident  of  the  City  of  Grand  Rapids,  County  of  Kent,  State  of  Michigan 
of  the  United  States  of  America.  That  on  the  31st  day  of  August,  1894, 
he  became  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the  United  States,  as  appears  by  the 
certified  copies  of  the  records  of  the  Circuit  Court  of  the  County  of 
Cook,  State  of  Illinois.  That  he  has  been  engaged  in  missionary  work 
for  10  years,  both  in  Persia  and  in  the  United  States  of  America.  That 
in  the  month  of  May,  1895,  the  time  in  which  the  events  for  which  de- 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


45 


pcnent  makes  claim  occurred,  he  was  engaged  as  a  missionary  in  Oroo- 
miah, Persia. 

2.  That  he  has  a  claim  to  the  amount  of  five  thousand  ($5,000) 
dollars  based  upon  the  facts  as  hereinafter  stated,  against  the  Govern- 
ment of  Turkey. 

That  on  the  4th  day  of  October,  1894,  he  was  given  passport  No. 
16911  by  the  United  States  of  America,  Walter  Q.  Gresham,  Secretary  of 
State.  That  on  the  7th  day  of  November,  1894,  he  left  the  United  States 
of  America  on  the  steamship  Paris  for  the  purpose  of  going  to  Oroomiah, 
Persia  and  engage  in  missionary  work  there.  That  he  arrived  in  Oroo- 
miah on  the  first  day  of  January,  1895,  and  engaged  immediately  in  the 
work  of  teaching  and  remained  there  till  the  29th  day  of  May,  1895,  work- 
ing in  Persia  continuously.  That  on  the  29th  day  of  May,  1895,  deponent 
started  to  visit  Mar  Shimmon,  a  Nestorian  Patriarch  in  the  village  of 
Kochanues  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  Deponent 
says  that  he  had  the  American  passport  above  referred  to  duly  signed 
and  sealed  and  certified  to  by  the  representatives  of  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment stationed  at  Oroomiah,  as  noted  on  the  passport  and  translation 
as  follows : 

Signature. 

"Mr.  Adams,  an  American  citizen  is  going  to  Kurdistan,  Turkey,  as 
a  traveler.  In  the  month  of  Dekaadal  Haram  24.  In  the  year  of  Hegira 
13 12.  (May,  1895) : 

(Seal.) 

The  vice  counsel  of  the  supreme  state  of  Ottoman,  residing  in  Oroo- 
miah, Yoseph. 

That  on  the  31st  day  of  May,  1895,  he  arrived  at  the  Turkish  frontier 
and  after  showing  his  passport  and  identification  to  the  Turkish  repre- 
sentatives was  allowed  to  pass.  That  on  the  2nd  day  of  June,  1895,  he 
arrived  at  Dizza  Gavar  within  the  Turkish  territory  of  Kurdistan  Mount- 
ains. That  he  was  then  and  there  arrested  and  put  in  prison  on  the 
charge  of  being  an  American  spy.  That  deponent's  passport  was  taken 
from  him  and  he  was  ordered  to  await  the  pleasure  of  the  authorities. 
That  he  was 'given  no  public  trial  or  opportunity  for  defense  as  an  Ameri- 
can citizen  he  demanded  of  the  Turkish  authorities.  That  he  was  told 
that  he  was  an  American  spy  sent  out  by  the  United  States  Government 
to  report  to  it  the  detailed  massacres  then  taking  place  among  Armenian 
and  Nestorian  subjects  of  the  Turkish  Government  and  to  stir  up  rebel- 
lion and  insurrection  against  their  government. 

That  deponent  did  not  at  any  time  violate  the  rules  of  international 


46 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


law.  That  he  did  not  in  any  manner  by  word  or  sign  encourage  rebel- 
lion nor  did  he  speak  to  any  Turkish  subject  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
vestigating insurrection  and  discontent  among  the  colonies  and  people  of 
the  Turkish  Dominion.  That  he  informed  them  that  he  came  to  obtain 
authority  from  the  Nestorian  Patriarch  to  assist  him  in  teaching  his  peo- 
ple, and  that  he  did  this  as  an  American  citizen,  and  was  entitled  to 
all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  an  American  citizen. 

Deponent  further  says  that  he  had  with  him  a  servant  named  Esha- 
kan  from  Persia. 

That  they  rode  on  horseback  and  that  besides  the  property  necessary 
for  a  long  journey  through  the  plains  and  mountains  he  had  about  his 
person  and  about  the  person  of  his  servant  a  large  sum  of  money,  the 
sum  of  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  pounds  in  gold  and  thirty  pounds  in 
silver.  That  the  gold  was  in  Russian  Imperial,  Turkish  Megedia  and 
forty-eight  English  sterling.  That  the  Turkish  police  authorities  put  him 
under  guard  at  Dizza  Gavar  and  imprisoned  him  for  nine  days.  That  em- 
issarnes  were  sent  repeatedly  for  the  purpose  of  extorting  from  deponent 
the  knowledge  of  the  hiding  places  of  his  money  and  that  he  was  sub- 
jected to  innumerable  cruelties  for  the  purpose  of  extorting  money. 
That  large  sums  of  money  were  in  this  way  extorted  from  the  deponent. 
That  he  was  gagged,  beaten,  robbed  and  tortured. 

That  on  the  fifth  day  of  his  confinement,  he  was  placed  in  chains 
and  cruelly  bound  and  maltreated  in  a  dungeon.  That  his  feet  were  tied 
together  and  that  heavy"  chains  held  them  an  elevation  of  several  feet 
from  ground  while  he  was  sitting  on  the  ground  of  the  dungeon.  That 
his  hands  were  bound  behind  him  and  a  heavy  iron  collar  clasped  around 
his  neck  so  he  was  unable  to  move  any  muscle  of  his  body.  That  he  was 
left  without  food  or  drink  and  that  his  money  and  property  were  taken 
from  him.  That  animal  and  vermin  were  creeping  over  him  and  that  he 
was  subjected  to  great  mental  and  physical  suffering.  That  he  was 
obliged  to  remain  in  this  position  for  four  days. 

That  the  only  one  allowed  to  see  him  was  his  servant  who  obtained 
for  him  bread  and  water  for  which  he  was  obliged  to  pay  large  sums 
of  money.  That  through  this  servant  he  communicated  with  the  English 
Missions  and  friends  at  Oroomiah,  Persia  and  that  they  communicated 
with  the  American  Ambassador  at  Teheran,  Persia.  That  the  American 
Ambassador  at  Teheran,  Persia,  communicated  with  the  American  Gov- 
ernment at  Washington. 

That  Minister  Terrell  then  protested  against  deponent's  arrest  and 
demanded  of  the  Turkish  Government  orders  to  the  local  authorities  for 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


47 


the  deponent's  release.  That  then  on  the  9th  day  deponent  was  released. 
Minister  Terrell  was  informed  that  deponent  had  not  been  arrested  and 
that  deponent  had  not  been  in  the  village  of  Kochanues,  and  that  other 
misrepresentations  were  made.  That  large  sums  of  money  were  extorted 
under  various  pretenses  from  deponent  by  the  jailers,  governor  and  offi- 
cials of  the  Turkish  Government.  That  the  governor  after  deponent's 
release  sent  two  Zaptiehs  under  a  pretense  of  police  protection  and 
serveillance  and  that  he  was  then  robbed  and  brutally  treated  on  the 
journey  by  the  Zaptiehs. 

That  on  account  of  being  so  detained  and  mistreated  deponent  did 
not  arrive  at  Kochanues  until  the  15th  day  of  June,  and  on  account  of 
poor  health  which  was  due  to  his  treatment  while  in  Turkish  prison  was 
not  able  to  return  to  his  work  in  Oroomiah  until  July  16th,  1895,  and  lost 
a  large  amount  of  time. 

That  he  was  of  sound  mind  and  body  when  he  entered  the  Turkish 
possessions.  That  he  was  sick,  emaciated  and  mentally  weak  for  a  long 
time  thereafter.  That  he  was  obliged  to  spend  large  sums  of  money  to 
recuperate  and  resupply  himself.  And  that  on  account  of  all  this  he  makes 
claim  against  the  Turkish  Government  for  the  sum  of  Five  Thousand 
Dollars. 


Department  of  State, 
Washington,  May  23,  1899. 
Isaac  Adams,  Esquire,  No.  124  Lagrave  Street,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan. 

Sir — Referring  to  the  Department's  letter  of  the  15th  of  March  last, 
and  to  previous  correspondence,  on  the  subject  of  your  claim  against 
Turkey,  I  have  now  to  inform  you  that  the  Department  is  in  receipt  of  a 
despatch  from  our  Minister  to  Turkey,  dated  the  6th  instant,  in  which 
he  reports  that  on  the  preceding  day  he  presented  the  claim  to  the 
Turkish  Government  and  demanded  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  of 
twenty-five  thousand  (25,000)  francs.    I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

DAVID  J.  HILL, 
Assistant  Secretary. 

My  servant,  however,  stood  by  me  loyally  and  did  me  excellent 
service,  by  using  a  careful  scheme  of  sending  letters  to  my  brother  and  the 
Patriarch,  whose  residence  was  at  Kochanues.  I,  on  the  contrary,  had 
given  up  all  hope  of  living  any  longer;  day  and  night  tears  were  in 
my  eyes,  and  my  cry  was  for  the  losi  condition  of  my  people.  I  was 
always  praying  that  the  Lord  might  spare  me  for  a  few  years  more,  that 
I  might  see  my  brothers  take  charge  of  my  work.  Through  the  grace 
and  mercy  of  Christ  I  can  say,  I  was  ready  to  die  any  manner  of  death 


43 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


in  the  faith  of  One  who  thus  loved  us  and  gave  Himself  to  die  even  the 
death  of  the  cross  for  us  undone  sinners. 

But  what  a  joy  it  was  to  me  when  the  doors  of  the  prison  were 
opened  and  I  was  once  more  freed  from  that  awful  torture  (as  they  had 
received  orders  to  let  me  go  on),  my  language  fails  me  to  describe. 

I  started  again  next  morning  with  my  good  servant  and  three 
Turkish  soldiers  on  my  way  to  the  Patriarch.  After  a  day's  journey 
we  came  to  Kermi,  where  there  were  only  four  Nestorian  houses ;  there 
we  met  sixteen  Kurds  sitting  on  a  flat  roof,  smoking  pipes.  When  I 
passed  by  them  I  heard  them  say,  "There  is  a  man  we  will  kill  tonight 
and  take  his  valuables."  I  went  to  a  Nestorian  house  to  spend  the  night. 
It  being  so  hot  I  wished  to  sleep  on  the  roof,  but  they  feared  that  those 
Kurds  would  come  and  kill  me  and  advised  me  to  remain  indoors  and 
hide,  and  I  listened  to  their  entreaties  and  went  into  a  large  square  house, 
one  side  of  which  was  a  stable  and  the  other  side  a  hay  and  straw  loft 
In  the  other  end  of  the  building  the  people — about  thirty  in  number,  men 
and  women — lived.  They  put  me  under  the  hay.  For  about  two  hours 
I  was  there,  when  I  was  nearly  suffocated.  I  cried  for  mercy  and  they 
pulled  me  out  from  under  the  hay,  and  I  told  them  if  it  was  God's  will 
that  I  should  be  killed,  then  I  was  ready  to  die.  About  a  half-hour  latei 
I  saw  two  Kurds  approach,  while  I  was  trembling  and  shaking  all  over. 
I  tried  to  appear  pleasant  when  I  saw  them.  The  first  thing  they  told  me 
after  they  kneeled  down  was,  that  they  had  come  to  kill  me  and  takt 
all  my  valuables.  I  told  them  I  was  not  afraid  of  dying,  but  I  impressed 
upon  their  minds  that  my  name  and  former  case  had  gained  such  pub- 
licity that  if  they  should  kill  me  the  Turkish  authorities  would  be  com- 
pelled by  the  United  States  Government  to  give  account  of  my  where- 
abouts, and  then  the  Sultan  would  send  soldiers  to  massacre  them  and  all 
their  families  in  this  community,  and  so  they  had  better  not  do  it.  They 
decided  so.  They  asked  me  for  some  sugar,  as  one  of  their  number  had 
fallen  from  his  horse  and  broken  his  leg.  I  gave  them  some  and  they 
left  me  unhurt,  but  warned  me  that  they  were  going  the  same  way  with 
me  next  morning.  I  could  not  sleep  all  night,  and  after  having  set  out 
for  Kochanues  next  morning  we  were  soon  overtaken  by  the  Kurds  of  the 
previous  ill  acquaintance.  We  rode  on  together  with  them  for  a  long 
while,  until  we  arrived  at  a  village  closed  in  on  two  sides  by  high  mount- 
ains. Here  the  leader  of  the  Kurds  halted,  drew  his  sword,  and  holding 
it  across  my  neck  threatened  to  sever  my  head  from  my  body  instantly, 
unless  I  gave  him  some  money.  I  felt  the  sharp  edge  of  the  sword  on  my 
coat-collar,  and  had  my  horse  taken  but  one  more  step  at  that  moment, 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


49 


I  have  no  doubt  but  I  would  have  had  my  head  cut  off.  I  quickly  ordered 
my  servant  to  give  him  money,  upon  receiving  which  he  put  back  his 
sword  and  allowed  me  to  ride  on.  Soon  after  this  the  Kurds  left  us,  and 
five  hours  later  we  reached  Kochanues. 

From  a  distance  we  noticed  a  multitude  before  the  entrance  to  the 
Patriarch's  residence,  and  upon  drawing  nearer  we  saw  that  there  were 
at  least  400  persons  lingering  there  and  smoking  pipes.  On  inquiring 
into  the  cause  of  this  gathering,  we  were  informed  that  all  these  people 
had  come  to  condole  with  him  on  the  decease  of  his  step-brother. 


FUNERAL  PROCESSION  OF  JESSE,  STEPBROTHER  OF  THE  NESTORIAN  PATRIARCH. 

The  Patriarch  was  immediately  advised  of  my  arrival.  He  had  tele- 
graphed several  times  to  the  Turkish  government  about  me,  and  had 
been  expecting  me  for  some  time.  Our  horses  were  taken  care  of,  a 
special  room  was  given  us  and  a  servant  ordered  to  entertain  us  and 
see  that  we  were  well  provided  for.  I  hastened  to  pay  my  respects  to  the 
Patriarch,  and  after  having  been  ushered  into  his  presence  kissed  his 
hand,  according  to  the  general  custom.  He  graciously  motioned  me  to  be 
seated,  whereupon  he  opened  the  conversation.  Upon  learning  the  pur- 
pose that  had  brought  me  hither,  to  work  for  the  good  of  his  people, 
he  was  very  much  delighted. 


50 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


The  sixteen  Kurds  who  had  given  us  so  much  trouble  on  our  way 
to  the  Patriarch  had  also  arrived  by  this  time.  I  had  advised  the  Patri- 
arch of  what  happened  on  the  way,  and  after  having  come  in  and  paid 
their  respects  to  him,  he  ordered  them  in  a  stern  tone  to  go  to  the  office. 
Here  their  fire-arms  were  taken  from  them  and  they  were  informed  that 
they  would  all  be  punished  for  their  evil  conduct.  But  quite  a  large  num- 
ber of  Nestorians  approached  the  Patriarch  and  interceded  in  behalf  of 
the  Kurds,  and  these  latter  kneeled  down,  kissed  the  mat  upon  which 
the  Patriarch  rested  and  apologized  to  me  for  what  they  had  done.  When 
night  came  they  were  ordered  to  go  to  a  neighboring  house  for  lodgings  ; 
but  they  unanimously  cried  out  that  they  would  not  leave  the  Patriarch's 
roof,  for  fear  of  all  being  killed  by  the  Nestorians.  Upon  this  they  were 


Mar  Gabriel  and  his  Nephew  who  was  mas- 
sacred by  the  Kurds. 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


Si 


allowed  to  remain,  and  shown  into  a  separate  apartment,  where  they  all 
passed  the  night  together.  Their  object  in  visiting  the  Patriarch  was  to 
have  a  blood-price  established  for  the  slaying  of  the  wife  of  one  of  their 
number,  who  had  been  killed  in  a  combat  between  Kurds  and  Nestorians. 
The  sad  affair  had  been  brought  about  as  follows : 

Younan  Bar  Malekkambar,  a  young  Nestorian,  was  married  and  his 
bride  was  being  carried  by  the  bridal  procession,  when  suddenly  a  party 
of  Kurds  came  in  upon  them  and  demanded  some  money.  In  place  of 
complying  with  their  request  the  Nestorians  assumed  a  defiant  attitude ; 
a  quarrel  ensued,  and  finally  some  one  opened  fire.  Kurdish  women  are 
known  always  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  an  action  of  this  nature,  and 
so  it  was  also  in  this  case.  Many  on  both  sides  of  the  combating  parties 
were  wounded  and  one  Kurdish  woman  was  killed.  For  the  death  of 
this  woman,  these  sixteen  Kurds  sought  redress,  and  demanded  of  the 
Patriarch  the  privilege  of  puttings  to  death  Younan  Bar  Malekkambar, 
whom  they  pointed  out  as  having  been  the  originator  of  the  whole  affair. 
The  Patriarch,  however,  refused  to  deliver  Younan  Bar  Malekkambar 
into  their  hands,  but  offered  a  ransom  consisting  of  sixty  silver  magdiah, 
two  pieces  of  musketry,  four  mules  and  fifty  sheep.  This  ransom  was 
not  considered  sufficient  by  the  Kurds,  and  they  left  dissatisfied. 

In  the  year  1896,  the  Nestorian  bishop,  Mar  Gabriel,  of  Oroomiahs 
several  other  prominent  Nestorian  clergymen,  with  their  servants 
(among  whom  were  a  number  of  my  best  helpers,  and  Younan  Bar  Mal- 
ekkambar), visited  the  Nestorian  Patriarch.  On  their  way  home  they  were 
attacked  by  the  Kurds  and  massacred;  Younan  Bar  Malekkambar's 
body  was  hacked  to  pieces  and  the  pieces  scattered  in  all  directions. 
Thus  they  avenged  the  death  of  that  woman,  as  they  always  will  take 
revenge  for  the  violent  death  of  one  of  their  number,  and  should  it  take 
them  fifty  years  to  do  it. 

One  hundred  persons,  more  or  less,  are  guests  of  the  Patriarch 
every  day.  Each  is  kindly  received,  housed  and  entertained,  and  his  horses 
or  mules  stabled  and  cared  for.  Sheep  and  fowls  are  being  continually 
slaughtered  to  provide  for  the  table,  as  four  or  five  sheep  are  being  daily 
consumed.  Mules  are  incessantly  traveling  to  and  from  Musol,  Dizza 
and  Oroomiah  for  provisions,  bringing  flour  and  sugar  to  fill  the  Patri- 
arch's larders.  Oxen  are  steadily  employed  in  drawing  sufficient  quanti- 
ties of  hay  and  straw,  for  the  accommodation  of  horses  and  mules.  Natu- 
rally, the  expense  of  continually  providing  for  such  an  army  of  people  is 
enormous;  but  the  Patriarch,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  must  keep  a  hos- 
pitable house,  and  every  person,  without  any  discrimination  regarding 


52 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


creed  or  nationality,  is  expected  to  be  welcomed  here,  and  be  well  kept ; 
according-  to  his  social  standing,  may  he  remain  one  hour  or  two  months. 
To  defray  this  enormous  expense,  however,  each  visitor  must  contribute 
something,  be  it  victuals  or  clothing,  fowls  or  sheep,  money  or  jewels — 
no  person  dare  come  empty-handed.  In  addition  to  this  collectors  are 
sent  out  regularly  to  collect  contributions  of  honey,  grapes,  fruit,  millet, 
wheat,  cheese,  wine,  etc.,  and  free-will  gifts  are  continually  pouring  in 
also.  Besides,  the  Turkish  government  pays  the  Patriarch  an  annuity 
of  between  $1,400  and  $1,500.  After  rising  very  early  in  the  morning, 
as  he  always  does,  and  observing  his  daily  worship,  the  Patriarch  enters 
a  large  apartment,  or  hall,  where  he  gives  audience  to  the  people  who 
have  assembled  to  bring  all  sorts  of  cases  before  him.  During  my  stay 
there  I  was  given  the  privilege  to  witness  a  few  of  these  hearings.  One 
man  complained  that  his  daughter  had  been  forcibly  abducted ;  a  second 
had  his  cattle  stolen  by  the  Kurds ;  a  third  had  been  robbed  on  his  jour- 
ney. One  man  narrated  a  sad  story  of  a  caravan,  among  which  he  had 
traveled.  It  had  been  attacked,  from  twenty  to  thirty  persons  had  been 
killed  and  all  the  goods  stolen.  Two  leaders  of  devil-worshipers  peti- 
tioned for  redress  for  having  been  robbed  and  beaten  nearly  to  death,  etc. 
In  such  and  similar  cases  the  Patriarch  either  sends  out  his  own  servants 
to  recover  stolen  property,  in  which  they  are  often  successful,  or  he 
telegraphs  to  the  Turkish  government  and  has  the  matter  adjusted 
through  them.  It  is,  consequently,  nothing  very  uncommon  to  find  Turk- 
ish governors  and  other  officials  at  the  residence  of  the  Nestorian  Patri- 
arch. 

It  is  impossible  to  adequately  picture  in  words  the  awful  condition 
in  which  the  Christians  live  in  these  parts,  so  much  oppressed  by  the 
wild  Kurds  and  the  Turks.  On  my  travels  there,  always  accompanied 
by  two  or  three  Turkish  soldiers,  I  had  ample  opportunity  to  witness 
the  outrages  which  Christians  must  endure.  Whenever  we  had  entered 
an  Armenian  or  Nestorian  village,  the  soldiers  would  rush  into  the  houses 
and  act  entirely  as  masters  of  the  place.  They  demanded  food  and  drink 
such  as  they  preferred,  and  their  demands  must  be  complied  with  under 
all  circumstances  or  they  would  become  furious,  knock  down  doors, 
break  the  windows,  slap  the  inhabitants  in  the  face,  shoot  the  chickens 
and  other  domestic  animals  in  the  yard,  and  carry  on  in  a  brutal  manner. 
At  one  place  they  shot  a  little  child,  playing  in  the  sand,  just  for  a  joke. 
When  once  we  arrived  at  a  village,  late  at  night,  they  demolished  the 
doors,  which  were  not  immediately  opened  at  their  call,  compelled  most 
of  the  men  in  the  village  to  arise  from  their  beds  and  go  out  and  cut  grass 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


53 


in  the  fields  for  their  horses.  In  the  meantime  they  themselves  entered 
the  houses,  and  did  what  they  pleased  with  the  women.  At  one  time 
they  entered  a  house  while  a  male  inhabitant  was  watering  their  horses. 
They  found  a  woman  with  children,  lying  asleep  in  bed.  They  picked  up 
the  bedding,  together  with  the  persons  in  it,  carried  all  out  of  doors, 
emptied  the  mother  and  her  children  out  into  the  yard,  and,  after  taking 
the  bed  back  into  the  house,  slept  on  it  themselves.  Everywhere  in  the 
Kurdistan  Mountains  the  dwellings  of  the  Nestorians  are  of  the  hum- 
blest kind.-  Many  houses  (but  they  do  not  deserve  that  name)  are  built 
half  underground  on  account  of  the  extreme  severity  of  the  winters,  the 
snow  there  lying  five  feet  deep  on  the  level.  In  order  to  keep  warm  dur- 
ing this  season,  people  live  in  one  compartment,  together  with  their 
animals,  in  a  state  of  filth  that  beggars  description.  But  there  is  another 
reason  for  this.  The  winters  being  very  long,  the  animals  owned  by 
these  people,  are  solely  depending  upon  the  stock  of  hay  laid  in.  This 
hay,  as  well  as  the  animals,  must  be  kept  as  near  as  possible,  owing  to 
lawless  tribes  of  Kurds,  who  are  swooping  down  upon  them,  foraging 
their  herds,  pillaging  their  goods  and  burning  their  hay  when  within 
their  reach  and  unprotected.  However,  the  extortion  and  oppression 
by  the  government  are  feared  nearly  as  much  as  the  Kurds. 

These  soldiers  are  called  Zaptiehs,  and  their  functions  are  similar  to 
those  of  patrolmen  in  the  United  States ;  but  there  is  another  kind  of 
Turkish  soldiers  called  Hamidieh,  who  are  a  great  help  to  the  Zaptieh 
in  oppressing  the  people.  These  will  seize  people  at  tneir  option,  and 
then  promise  to  release  them  if  they  pay  them  the  money  they  want;  if 
the  money  is  not  forwarded,  they  will  be  taken  to  prison.  Here  they 
will  be  penned  in  a  cell  full  of  vermin  and  filth,  with  twenty-five  or  thirty 
other  persons,  and  no  water  given  them  to  drink  But  that  which  Moham- 
medans have  used  for  their  ablutions.  The  treatment  which  such  poor 
persons  are  subjected  to  is  most  shocking — (a)  red  hot  irons  are  pressed 
against  different  parts  of  their  bodies ;  (b)  they  are  undressed  and  beaten 
into  unconsciousness;  (c)  a  collar  is  thrown  over  their  heads  and  they 
are  thus  drag'ged  through  the  streets;  (d)  they  are  left  without  food  or 
drink  until  starved ;  (e)  they  are  forced  to  stand  for  a  long  time  continu- 
ously, and  all  kinds  of  filth  is  poured  down  over  their  heads ;  (f)  they  are 
forced  to  perform  shaton  toppy,  or  devil's  ring,  the  result  of  which  is 
death;  hands  and  feet  are  tightly  bound,  they  are  forced  to  hold  their 
hands  above  their  heads,  whereas  a  severe  torture  is  administered  and  an 
unspeakable,  beastly  crime  committed;  (g)  their  hair  is  plucked  out  by 
handfuls ;  (h)  they  are  mutilated  and  crippled  in  various  ways ;  (i)  they 


54 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


are  compelled  to  stand  erect  within  a  box  just  large  enough  to  admit  one 
person,  but  the  box  is  beset  with  sharp  steel  points  on  all  sides;  in  this 
box  they  must  stand  for  from  thirty  to  forty-eight  hours  in  succession, 
not  being  permitted  even  to  attend  to  the  wants  of  nature. 

When  sent  out  to  collect  taxes,  the  Zaptiehs  will  demand  the  double 


REV.  PROF.  GARABED  THOUMAIAN,  B.A.,  IX  TURKISH  IRONS. 

Oue  important  factor  in  calling  attention  to  the  cruelties  of  the  Sultan  and  his  satraps,  and 
their  Hagrant  violation  of  the  provisions  of  the  Berlin  Treaty,  was  the  arrest,  imprisonment,  and 
condemnation  to  death  of  the  Rev.  Professor  Garabed  Thoumaian,  B.A.,  a  Protestant  Armenian 
teacher  and  missionary,  connected  with  the  American  College  at  Marsovan.  This  gentleman  had 
married  a  Swiss  pastor's  daughter,  and  at  the  time  of  her  husband's  arrest  she  was  in  England 
collecting  money  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a  hospital  for  the  sick  of  Marsovan.  Her  letters  to 
her  husband  were  Intercepted  and  opened,  and  a  trumpery  charge  of  sedition  was  brought  against 
him,  and  upon  this  baseless  charge  he  was  imprisoned  aud  condemned  to  death  Knowing  that  he 
was  greatly  beloved  by  his  Marsovan  people,  and  fearing  the  publicity  which  would  be  given  to 
their  conduct,  the  officials  decided  to  secretly  remove  him  from  Marsovan,  and  he  had  to  undergo 
a  mock  trial.  Witnesses  had  been  tortured  in  different  prisons  in  order  to  extract  incriminatory 
evidence  against  Mr.  Thoumaian.  In  the  end  he  was  condemned  to  death,  and  we  give  the  account 
of  his  sufferings  in  his  own  words,  with  the  picture  of  the  instruments  of  his  torture. 

"I  was  confined  for  five  months  of  harsh  imprisonment,  although  the  Governor  of  Angora 
had  told  the  British  Consul  there,  and  my  brother-in-law,  Pastor  Hoffman,  of  Geneva,  that  he  had 
examined  my  case  and  found  me  innocent.  Witnesses  were  tortured  by  the  Pasha  of  Ca-sarea 
into  giving  false  evidence  against  me,  yet,  although  this  became  known,  I  received  the  death  sen- 
tence. I  was  moved  with  other  prisoners  from  place  to  place ;  for  two  months  I  was  in  chains, 
and  for  five  days  my  hands  were  iu  stocks  weighing  15  lbs.  With  crushed  wrists  and  bleeding 
arms  and  hands  we  were  driven  one  night  over  the  snow-covered  mountains  in  an  open  cart,  be- 
ing 17  hours  without  food,  and  poorly  clad.  Then  we  were  herded  with  thieves  and  murderers, 
and  still  left  without  food.  When  the  stocks  were  taken  off  iron  collars,  weighing  10  lbs.,  were 
substituted,  and  aome  of  us  were  victims  of  beatings  and  torture  too  horrible  for  description  In  an 
English  journal." 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


55 


amount.  In  a  week,  perhaps  they  will  put  in  an  appearance  a  second  time 
and  demand  the  same  amount  again;  if  their  demand  is  not  complied 
with,  or  remonstrances  are  offered,  they  will  insist  upon  the  surrender 
of  young  women  and  girls  in  the  family,  to  glut  their  brutal  appetites, 
and  if  refused,  punishment  with  tortures,  often  even  death,  is  sure  to  fol- 
low. 

A  compassionate  reader  may  learn  from  this  that  the  lives  and  pro- 
perty of  Christians,  subjects  to  the  Sultan,  are  nowhere  safe  in  tne  Otto- 
man Empire.  There  is  no  justice  for  them ;  their  lives,  property  and 
honor  are  ever  at  the  mercy  of  the  meanest  Musselman  who  may  see  fit 
to  attack  either.  He  can  never  prove  that  he  has  been  wronged,  for 
his  evidence  against  a  Musselman  is  null  and  void.  The  sacred  law  of  the 
Islam  states  that  the  murder  of  a  Christian  is  not  a  crime.  Christians 
are  strictly  prohibited  from  carrying  arms  of  any  kind.  They  are  held 
by  law  to  practice  hospitality  towards  any  Musselman,  be  he  official 
or  traveler,  pasha  or  beggar.  These  unwelcome  guests  demand  the  best 
rooms  in  the  house,  the  best  kind  of  nourishment  possible,  and  make 
free  with  the  female  members  of  the  house  to  suit  themselves.  The  men 
on  the  other  hand  are  helpless,  having  no  arms  or  weapons,  while  their 
guests  are  generally  well  provided  in  this  respect ;  and  should  they  dare 
to  enter  complaint  with  any  of  the  local  authorities,  they  would  either  be 
beaten  or  cast  into  prison,  or  even  shot  down  on  the  spot. 

Christians  are  forbidden  to  ride  on  horses ;  they  may  use  donkeys 
for  their  purpose,  but  must  descend  whenever  they  meet  a  Musselman, 
bow  low  with  downcast  eye,  whether  the  Mohammedan  be  a  beggar  and 
he  a  nobleman,  or  vice  versa. 

But  to  return  to  the  tax  collectors.  A  year's  tax  is  demanded  in 
advance.  In  many  instances,  of  course,  Christians  will  not  be  able  to 
comply  with  this  rigid  law,  and  beg  for  time ;  but  it  is  not  allowed  them. 
Their  cattle,  household  goods  or  other  chattels,  are  taken  and  offered 
at  auction,  and  the  neighboring  Kurds,  who  have  been  previously  ad- 
vised of  the  sale,  will  bid  the  lowest  price  possible,  as  Christians  are  not 
permitted  to'  join  in  the  bidding.  The  proceeds  of  such  auction  sales  are 
then  divided  among  the  Kurds  and  the  Zaptiehs.  Thousands  of  Christ- 
ians have  thus  been  reduced  to  extreme  want,  feeding  on  roots  and  herbs 
for  months,  and  thousands  more  have  perished  and  are  still  perishing 
from  starvation.  Though  not  present  myself  at  any  of  the  terrible  whole- 
sale massacres  of  Christians,  I  at  one  time  was  only  thirty  miles  distant 
from  one  of  them.  A  Turkish  soldier,  Ahhamed,  with  whom  I  had  a  con- 


56 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


versation,  boasted  of  having  killed  thirty  men,  women  and  children  dur- 
ing the  shocking  butchery  at  Sason. 

Since  1820  these  defenseless  Christian  subjects  of  the  Sultan  have 
been  slain  at  random.  In  1822,  50,000  Greek  Catholics  were  massacred 
at  Scio;  in  1843,  18,000  Nestorians  in  the  Kurdistan  Mountains;  16,000 
Maronites  and  Syrians  at  Lebannon  and  Damascus ;  10,000  Bulgarians 
in  1876;  more  than  50,000  Armenians  and  others  in  Asiatic  Turkey  since 
1894.    But  what  shall  we  say  of  the  many  thousands  of  women  and 


THE  HORRIBLE  MASSACRE  AT  SASSOUN. 

The  horrors  of  this  "Reign  of  Terror"  in  Armenia  never  began  to  be  realized  till  the  autumn 
of  1894,  when  news  of  a  bloody  massacre  in  the  town  and  district  of  Sassoun,  reaching  England 
in  a  most  roundabout  manner,  for  the  authorities  who  planned  the  massacre  carefully  guarded 
against  its  dreadful  character  leaking  out,  and  had  it  not  been  for  a  few  refugees  who  managed 
to  escape,  the  extent  of  this  unprecedented  crime  would  never  have  been  known. 

At  a  given  signal  the  emmissaries  of  the  Sultan,  led  by  Bahri  Pasha  (Vali  of  Van),  pounced 
upon  the  defenseless  and  unsuspecting  inhabitants,  and  without  distinction  of  age  or  sex  shot 
them  down  like  cattle,  and  then  set  fire  to  their  homes,  thus  almost  destroying  every  vestige  of 
this  once  prosperous  place  so  completely  that  it  was  difficult  to  find  witnesses  to  testify  to  the 
extent  of  the  horrid  -deed.  The  number  who  perished  is  variously  estimated  at  from  300  to  2,000. 
A  deed  of  this  nature  and  extent  (much  as  the  sultan  desired  it)  could  not  be  hidden  from  view 
entirely.  For  many  months  travelers  were  carefully  excluded  from  entering  the  district,  and  most 
of  the  harrowing  particulars  that  have  come  to  light  are  the  descriptions  given  by  the  Turkish 
soldiers  who  took  part  in  them. 

The  following  is  a  description  given  of  the  place  by  one  who  visited  the  neighborhood  fully 
twelve  months  after  the  dreadful  massacre  had  taken  place.  It  is  from  the  London  Daily  News: 
"A  European  who  has  succeeded  in  visiting  the  devastated  Sassoun  region  has  forwarded  along 
report,  dated  August  20,  in  which  he  describes  the  terrible  state  of  the  district  and  the  heart- 
rending condition  of  the  Armenian  peasants.  He  has  examined  the  positions  occupied  by  the 
Turkish  troops  and  artillery,  and  writes:  'If  one  is  disposed  to  gather  relics  from  these  dole- 
ful valleyshe  has  only  to  stoop  down  and  pick  up  from  the  path  human  skulls  and  bones  that  have 
been  left  to  bleach  in  the  sun  for  these  long  twelve  months.  The  distress  already  reported  seems 
to  have  been  understated.  Villages  formerly  owning  15,000  sheep  are  now  ashes,  and  at  every 
hamlet  empty  petroleum  tins,  bearing  the  Government  stamp,  are  mute  witnesses  that  the  homes 
of  the  Armenians  were  set  on  fire  by  the  order  of  the  General  in  Command." 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


57 


maidens  who  have  been  captured  at  each  of  these  massacres,  forced  into 
Turkish  harems,  and  are  leading  a  life  to  which  death  were  far  preferable? 
And  the  throng1  of  children  who  were  captured  and  taken  or  sold  as 
slaves  ?  And  again,  thousands  and  thousands  of  poor,  wretched  fugitives, 
wandering  about  nearly  naked  and  without  food,  not  knowing  from  day 
to  day,  where  to  rest  their  heads.  Hundreds  of  Christian  villages  have 
been  totally  destroyed. 

Yet  all  non-Mohammedans  might  avoid  all  these  troubles,  be  they 
Armenians,  Nestorians  or  Jews,  if  they  so  desired.  All  they  need  do  is 
to  renounce  their  faith  and  turn  Mohammedans.  It  is  certainly  true 
that  from  the  moment  a  Christian  embraces  Mohammedanism,  his 
trouble  ceases.  It  is  not  astonishing,  therefore,  though  greatly  to  be 
deplored,  that  many  grow  weak  and  finally  yield  and  take  recourse  to  this 
way  of  ending  their  misery.  Many  have  already  done  so,  and  others  are 
preparing  to  follow  their  example.  May  God  have  mercy  upon  these 
poor  fellow  Christians  and  deliver  them  from  the  cruel  sword  of  Moham- 
medanism and  bring  them  under  a  Christian  banner. 

After  a  stay  of  twenty-three  days  with  the  Patriarch,  and  having 
made  all  necessary  arrangements  with  him  concerning  my  work,  I  started 
on  my  return  to  Persia,  escorted  by  two  Turkish  soldiers,  who  accom- 
panied and  guarded  me,  having  instructions  to  keep  me  from  receiving 
any  information  from  the  people  until  we  reached  Persia.  Here  they  left 
me,  after  I  had  been  for  forty-five  days  under  surveillance.  I  was  nearly 
broken  down  in  health,  owing  to  the  many  privations,  hardships  and 
sickening  sights  I  had  undergone  and  witnessed,  and  felt  very  much 
relieved  when,  once  more  at  home,  I  perceived  that  my  school  and  all 
the  rest  of  my  work  was  in  a  flourishing  condition. 

MEDICAL  MISSIONARY. 

Although  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  world  are  the  greatest  and  should 
be  sought  first,  yet  the  physical  needs  of  the  world  are  also  great,  and 
much  greater  in  the  heathen  world  than  in  the  Christian  world. 

The  healing  art  is  only  second  to  the  saving  art,  and  the  two  go 
hand  in  hand,  though  the  former  must  always  be  subservient. 

"And  Jesus  went  about  all  the  cities  and  villages,  teaching  in  their 
synagogues,  and  preaching  the  gospel  of  the  kingdom,  and  healing 
every  sickness  and  every  disease  among  the  people."  (Matt.  9:35). 

Our  Lord  was  therefore  Teacher,  Preacher  and  Healer.  His  rela- 
tion to  the  world  as  evangelist  is  our  relation  to  the  world  as  mission- 


58 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


aries.  As  He  was  so  are  we  in  the  world.  Christ  is,  then,  in  His  own 
life  and,  teaching'  our  authority  for  medical  missions.  Livingstone  said 
"God  had  an  only  Son,  and  He  was  a  physician." 

The  purpose  of  all  Christ's  healing  miracles  was  plainly  to  establish 
the  divine  character  of  His  life  and  mission  and  to  prepare  the  heart 
and  mind  for  the  acceptation  of  His  divine  message.  This  also  is  the 
aim  of  the  Medical  Mission.  Its  purpose  is  not  only  to  evangelize  and 
to  prepare  the  way  for  evangelization  but  to  establish  the  Divine  charac- 
ter of  Christianity,  of  which  it  is  a  part.  Healing  the  body  is  necessary 
as  well  as  curing  the  soul.  In  other  words  it  is  the  "double  cure."  Still 
further,  we  have  His  command  to  "Heal  the  sick,"  and  the  commis- 
sion Christ  gave  to  His  disciples  to  "preach  the  Kingdom  of  God  and 
to  heal  the  sick"  is  none  the  less  our  commission,  though  God's  natural 
medicines  are  used  in  lieu  of  the  healing  power  possessed  by  the 
disciples.,    Such  is  the  missionary  physicians'  commission. 

Medical  missions  are  now  established  in  most  of  the  great  mission 
fields.  Their  value  is  attested  by  the  fact  of  their  rapid  increase  in  recent 
years  and  they  have  become  a  powerful  factor  both  as  a  direct  evangeliz- 
ing agency  and  in  preparing  the  way  for  the  Gospel  message. 

Medical  missions  in  India  are  a  powerful  evangelizing  agency.  They 
rapidly  disarm  the  people  of  their  caste  prejudices,  and  while  the  reci- 
pients of  their  benefits,  the  patients  in  addition  to  the  living  lesson  of 
a  Christianity  which  they  can  see,  are  attentive  and  receptive  listeners 
to  the  Gospel  message. 

If  there  is  any  Christian  influence  'among  Mohammedans,  it  is  due 
to  the  Christian  doctor.  If  Christians  ever  expect  to  convert  Moham- 
medans to  Christ,  it  will  have  to  be  done  through  Christian  medical 
men  and  women.  Iron  doors  of  caste,  society,  religious  hatred,  personal 
and  national  ill-feeling  melt  away  before  a  physician  as  snow  before 
a  summer  sun.  His  office  is  considered  as  sacred  and  honored  as  that 
of  a  priest,  and  his  influence  is  immense  even  with  the  highest  and  great- 
est in  the  land. 

The  two  greatest  needs  in  Persia  at  the  present  time  are  native 
preachers  and  native  doctors.  The  importance  of  such  a  work  can 
scarcely  be  over  estimated.  The  native  doctors  are  entirely  ignorant 
and  when  they  touch  surgical  cases  at  all,  they  do  not  hesitate  to  operate 
with  rusty  razors,  as  the  surgical  instruments  as  well  as  medicines  of 
to-day  are  unknown  to  them.  However,  there  are  many  quack  doctors 
who  have  a  system  of  superstition  which  has  been  taught  them  orally 
by  older  men. 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


59 


Blades  of  some  kind  of  grasses  which  are  known  to  medical  science 
s  having  no  medical  properties  are  the  chief  remedies  prescribed  for 
disease.  Internal  diseases  are  called  supernatural  and  it  is  believed  they 
are  inflicted  by  evil  spirits.  None  of  the  doctors  can  do  anything  for 
these  forms  of  diseases  as  they  consider  it  out  of  their  realm. 
!  A  patient  with  an  internal  disease  is  sent  to  the  priest  who  will 
diagnose  the  case  by  looking  into  the  Koran  or  some  other  supersti- 
tious books  in  which  he  locates  the  particular  demon  that  is  afflicting 
the  patient.  For  a  remedy  he  will  write  some  mystical  signs  on  two 
slips  of  paper,  directing  the  patient  to  soak  one  in  a  cup  of  water  and  to 
bind  the  other  on  his  arm. 

There  are  several  remedies  for  fever,  one  is  to  tie  seven  knots  in  a 
white  thread  and  fasten  it  around  the  waist  wearing  it  fifteen  or  twenty 
days.  They  believe  this  will  cure  the  fever.  Another  remedy  is  to  remove 
the  clothing  and  jump  into  cold  water  before  breakfast.  If  a  man  has 
a  severe  attack  of  colic  and  cries  "I  die,  I  die,"  his  friends  run  for  the 
nearest  baldheaded  man,  as  he  is  known  to  have  power  to  remove 
the  pains  by  firmly  pressing  the  smooth  surface  of  his  cranium  against 
the  surface  of  the  patient's  body  nearest  the  seat  of  pain.  Pork  is  never 
used  as  food  but  as  a  remedy  for  rheumatism. 

The  medical  work  for  women  appeals  still  stronger  to  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  Christian  women,  they  are  so  needy,  helpless,  sorrow 
smitten,  over  borne,  and  neglected  in  a  Mohammedan  land,  and  Mo- 
hammedan life  subjects  them  to  many  physical  hardships  and  sufferings 
and  decay  so  that  the  medical  missionary  comes  to  them  as  an  angel 
from  the  Most  High. 

PRACTICE  OF  MEDICINE  IN  PERSIA. 

A  physician  cannot  see  the  faces  of  his  patients.  The  traveler  in 
the  East  is  often  asked  to  prescribe  for  the  sick,  be  he  actually  a  phy- 
sician or  not.  I  have  been  repeatedly  requested  to  serve  in  this  capacity. 
The  physician,  however,  labors  under  a  peculiar  disadvantage  in  Persian 
practice,  even  if  his  qualifications  are  not  too  carefully  examined ;  for, 
as  I  have  indicated  above,  he  is  not  permitted  to  see  the  face  of  his 
female  patient  and  is  thus  deprived  of  one  of  the  most  important  points 
in  forming  a  diagnosis.  The  native  doctors  require  no  other  diploma 
to  enter  the  profession  of  medicine  than  a  supply  of  infinite  assurance. 
They  are  generally  itinerants  who  go  from  village  to  village  and  announce 
their  profession  on  arriving.    Extraordinary  remedies  are  given.  Hav- 


60 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ing  prescribed,  the  physician  decamps  before  the  results  become  per- 
ceptible, aware  that  a  common  sequence  is  death.  Fortunately  for  the 
practitioners,  this  result  is  generally  quietly  accepted  as  the  fiat  of  Kis- 
met, or  Destiny. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  most  important  factor  now  at  work 
in  the  missionary  field  of  Persia  is  one  that  is  largely  secular.  I  refer  to 
the  employment  of  missionary  physicians.  Persons  who  do  not  care  to  be 
instructed  in  the  tenets  of  a  faith  other  than  their  own  are  still  in  need 
of  a  physical  aid.  All  may  not  be  in  spiritual  need,  but  all 
sooner  or  later,  require  a  physician.  If  the  practitioner  be  a  man  of 
ability,  tact  and  suavity,  he  acquires  a  personal  influence  that  necessarily 
leads  to  a  modification  of  the  opposition  to  the  progress  of  the  mission- 
aries with  whom  the  physician  is  associated  and  important  concessions 
may  thus  gradually  be  obtained  from  those  in  power. 

The  first  and  greatest  of  the  obstacles  which  complicate  th'e  present 
condition  in  Persia  is  Mohammedanism.  The  government  and  the  laws 
are  subject  to  official  direction  by  the  clergy,  the  case  is  indeed  serious. 
But  proceed  still  further  and  imagine  a  nation  whose  sovereign  draws 
from  the  priesthood  his  authority  to  rule,  and  whose  laws  are  based  on 
religious  exactions ;  whose  law-givers  are  priests  and  whose  judges  are 
also  priests ;  whose  government  in  a  word  is  theocratic, — and  we  find 
a  system  utterly  and  absolutely  at  variance  with  the  spirit  of  the  present 
age,  and  opposed  to  genuine  progress  in  all  ages.  That  is  exactly  what 
we  find  in  Persia. 

The  clergy  or  mollalis  are  irrevocably  opposed  to  innovation  from 
whatever  quarter;  they  have  their  grip  on  the  throat  of  the  nation,  and 
the  advantage  is  with  them  because  not  only  is  every  law  of  the  land 
on  their  side,  but  they  are  the  expounders  of  that  law. 

MY  SECOND  JOURNEY  TO  AMERICA. 

Very  soon,  however,  I  became  convinced  that  the  nature  and  extent 
of  my  work  demanded  another  visit  to  the  United  States.  The  principal 
object  of  my  coming  to  the  United  States  the  second  time,  was  to  take 
a  course  in  medicine,  to  qualify  myself  more  fully  as  a  missionary. 

I  did  not  hesitate  long,  made  the  necessary  arrangements  with  my 
helpers  for  conducting  my  schools  during  my  absence,  and  left  Persia 
a  second  time  for  America. 

Some  time  before  this  I  had  met  a  Dervish,  named  Ismail,  who  had 
entered  into  religious  conversation  with  me.  He,  by  some  means  or 
other,  had  begun  to  entertain  doubts  concerning  his  Mohammedan  reli- 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


61 


s^ion,  and,  upon  inquiry  and  further  searching,  had  been  convinced  that 
the  Islam  was  a  false  religion.  He  was  now  looking  for  something 
better.  I  found  him  to  be  an  honest,  upright  man,  true  to  his  convic- 
tions, and,  being  urged  by  some  Christians  who  knew  him,  and  by  the 
|Nestorian  bishop,  Mar  Gabriel,  I  determined  to  take  Ismail  with  me  to 
Russia,  where  he  might  enjoy  religious  liberty.  But,  before  doing  so, 
1  had  an  agreement  with  him  that  he  should  try  and  eat  bread  and  meat 
jlike  other  people.  As  a  Dervish,  true  to  his  faith,  he  had  become  of  the 
[fanatic  kind,  and,  as  he  claimed,  had  not  partaken  any  food  of  any 
kind  excepting  raisins,  for  to  let  the  body  suffer  will  enrich  the  soul," 
was  one  of  the  axioms  in  which  he  believed.    I  myself  entertained  some 


I.  YOHANNAN.  ABSHALLOM  GEORGE. 

doubts  at  first  as  to  the  veracity  of  his  statements,  but  found  them 
substantiated  by  many  people  who  had  known  him  for  years.  He  had 
been  with  me  for  two  or  three  months  when  we  left  Persia,  and  I 
had  tried  to  get  him  accustomed  to  wholesome  food  again  gradually, 
by  mixing  crumbs  of  bread  with  his  raisins. 

It  was  not  an  easy  task,  nor  was  it  altogether  safe  to  take  a  Dervish 
with  me  on  my  journey.  I,  consequently,  arranged  it  so  that  Ismail 
traveled  at  night,  while  I  and  a  youth,  Abshallom  George  by  name, 
whom  I  also  took  with  me,  traveled  during  the  day.  In  the  evening, 
after  our  arrival  at  some  place,  Ismail  would  meet  us,  and  Abshallom 
would  give  him  food  and  money  and  the  name  of  the  next  station  where 


62 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


he  coulc\  meet  us.  This  was  a  very  necessary  precaution  on  our  part, 
as  in  Persia  and  Turkey  a  Dervish  who  renounces  his  faith  and  openly 
confesses  Christianity  is  doomed.  In  Tabriz  there  was  a  slight  com- 
motion among  the  Mohammedans  when  some  one  publicly  claimed  he 
had  seen  a  Dervish  coming  and  going  in  and  out  where  we  lodged.  Our 
host  and  hostess,  however,  contradicted  him  by  stating  that  the  Dervish 
had  arrived  one  day  sooner  than  we,  and  so  the  gossip  was  silenced. 
After  we  were  safely  through  the  Caucasus,  Russia,  we  could  allow: 
Ismail  to  travel  in  our  company,  which  he  gladly  did.  It  was  both  his 
and  my  earnest  desire  to  get  with  him  to  Tifflis,  where  I  expected  him-; 
safe  enough  to  remain  and  be  baptised.  But  I  very  soon  found  that  I 
was  mistaken,  as  not  long  after  our  arrival  at  Tifflis  the  Persian  consul- 
was  informed  that  I  had  converted  a  Dervish  to  the  Christian  faith. 
The  consul  sent  his  servants  to  investigate.  I,  having  been  warned, 
however,  was  prepared.  I  had  a  carriage  waiting  at  the  back  door,  and 
when  the  servants  of  the  consul  entered  the  house,  Abshallom,  with  the 
Dervish,  left  it  through  the  back  door,  and  in  the  carriage  were  immedi- 
ately taken  to  the  depot,  where  they  left  for  Valadikokas.  Nevertheless, 
the  consul's  servants  had  found  some  of  the  "holy  instruments"  of  the 
Dervish  in  my  apartments  and  had  taken  these  with  them  to  the  consul, 
who,  in  consequence,  threatened  to  follow  the  matter  up  more  closely. 

Upon  this  I  dispatched  a  messenger  and  informed  the  consul  that, 
if  he  did  not  let  this  matter  rest  just  where  it' was  and  have  the  articles 
his  servants  had  taken  from  me  speedily  returned,  I  should  certainly 
seek  and  find  redress  by  appealing  to  all  the  rest  of  the  consuls.  This 
had  the  desired  effect  and  I  recovered  my  property.  While  in  this  city 
I  also  embraced  the  opportunity  to  settle  my  accounts  with  the  British 
Bible  Society,  the  London  house  having  turned  the  matter  over  into 
the  hands  of  their  agents  at  Tifflis.  I  sent  a  large  number  of  Bibles  to 
Persia,  and  took  a  few  only,  and  in  various  languages  spoken  in  Russia, 
with  me,  as  I  thought  I  might  make  use  of  them  on  my  journey.  After 
several  days  I  reached  Valadikokas,  where  I  met  Abshallom  with  Ismail. 
I  had  entertained  the  idea  of  leaving  the  latter  there,  but  here  also  we 
soon  learned  that  among  the  many  Mohammedans  living  or  sojourning 
in  this  place  Ismail  was  not  safe.  He  also  exhorted  me  to  take  him 
somewhere  where  he  would  not  see  any  more  Mohammedans,  whatever. 
So  I  bought  three  tickets  to  Alexandrowa,  via  Harkow,  Kiew  and  War- 
saw. But  between  Rostow  and  Harkow  I  was  robbed  on  the  train  and 
we  were  obliged  to  lay  over,  as  I  had  no  more  money.  We  stopped  at 
the  depot  for  two  days  and  three  nights,  I  trying  to  sell  my  Bibles  dur- 


PftRSO^At  HISTORY. 


63 


ing  the  day.  The  people  were  Polanders,  but  I  had  only  a  few  Polish 
Bibles  with  me.  These  were  soon  sold,  as  also  some  curiosities  I  had 
brought  with  me.  I  now  bought  three  tickets  for  the  next  station.  This 
was  on  the  German  frontier,  and  here  we  were  detained  by  the  officials, 
,who  claimed  thy  could  not  let  us  go  on  to  Germany  with  as  little  money 
as  we  had.  We  told  them  our  story  of  having  been  robbed  of  our  money 
in  Russia,  and  I  tried  to  impress  upon  them  that  I  had  friends  in  Berlin 


I.  YOHANNAN. 
Who  is  in  this  country  at  present  preparing  himself 
for  mission  work) 

who  would  supply  me  as  soon  as  I  arrived  there,  but  all  to  no  avail. 
There  remained  nothing  for  us  to  do  but  to  sell  nearly  everything  we 
had  (even  my  razor)  and  raise  money.  In  this  manner,  with  the  help 
of  God,  I  finally  succeeded  in  getting  all  three  of  us  to  Berlin,  and  have 
still  a  few  marks  left. 

In  Berlin,  we  were  taken  to  a  mission-house,  where  we  were  cor- 
dially welcomed,  and  spent  a  few  days.  All  this  time  Ismail  had  not 


64 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


abandoned  his  Dervish  clothes  and  his  long,  waving  hair.  Now  I  en- 
treated him  to  make  a  radical  change  in  his  exterior  and  turn  also  out- 
wardly into  a  good  Christian.  He  consented,  and  we  forthwith  took  him 
to  a  barber's  shop.  A  suit  of  clothes  was  given  him  to  put  on,  and  he 
now  began  to  look  like  one  of  us.  We  had  each  a  separate  bed  to  sleep 
in.  Next  morning  Ismail  came  to  me  grumbling  and  excited.  He 
could  not  get  along  with  putting  on  his  new  clothes.  He  had  his 
trousers  on  back  part  in  front,  his  collar  was  upside  down,  his  suspenders 
were  buttoned  over  his  coat,  etc.  This  irritated  him  greatly,  and  he 
insisted  upon  having  his  own  garments  back  and  did  not  want  these 
clothes  any  longer.  I  adjusted  his  clothing  and  talked  with  him  kindly, 
upon  which  he  became  soothed  and  went  with  us  to  the  breakfast  table. 
But  we  were  quite  late  and  therefore  alone  in  the  dining  room.  For 
the  first  time  in  his  life  Ismail  tried  to  make  use  of  a  knife  and  fork.  His 
first  attempts  were  very  awkward,  and  I  told  him  to  watch  us  and  then 
do  as  we  did.  He  tried  it,  but  stuck  the  fork  so  far  into  his  mouth  that 
the  points  pricked  him.  Now  he  grew  angry,  threw  knife  and  fork  upon 
the  floor,  overturned  his  chair  and  sat  on  the  floor  pouting  and  saying 
he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  such  things  any  more.  I  softly  and 
kindly  instructed  him  again  in  the  use  of  these  things,  and  finally  he 
became  more  pleasant  again.  After  breakfast  we  went  out  to  see  the 
sights  in  the  city,  I  explaining  to  my  companions  what  we  saw  as  we 
went  along. 

In  the  evening  Ismail  grew  obstinate  again.  He  once  more  de- 
manded his  own  old  garments,  and  insisted  on  having  them.  I  had 
foreseen  this,  however,  and  had  ordered  them  burnt,  with  the  exception 
of  a  sheepskin  the  Dervishes  use  to  sleep  upon.  This  I  let  him  have. 
He  immediately  took  off  his  collar,  cuffs  and  coat  and  hurled  them 
from  him,  took  the  sheepskin,  went  out  into  the  middle  of  the  street, 
and  lay  down  on  the  sheepskin.  Naturally,  in  a  few  moments  he  was 
surrounded  by  a  throng  of  people  who  stared  at  him  and  watched  every 
movement  he  made.  I  went  out  and  tried  to  get  him  back  into  the  house, 
but  not  until  after  much  urging  and  parleying  with  him,  did  I  succeed. 
But  into  a  room  he  would  not  come.  He  spread  his  sheep-skin  upon  the 
floor  of  the  hall  and  lay  down  upon  it,  and  there  he  spent  the  night.  We 
offered  to  buy  him  some  new  clothes  next  day,  but  he  would  not  have 
them,  saying,  "Why  should  we  endeavor  to  keep  this  fragile  body  clean 
and  neat,  knowing  that  after  death  it  will  become  a  prey  to  the  worms  ?" 

After  a  few  days,  however,  he  became  more  obedient  and  supple, 
so  that  I  entertained  the  idea  of  taking  him  with  me  to  America.  My 


PERSONAL  HISTOEY. 


65 


own  circumstances,  however,  took  such  a  turn  that  this  was  made  im- 
possible, but  afterward  I  was  glad  to  hear  from  him  and  helped  him 
;ome  to  this  country. 

I  had  some  Syriac  manuscripts  brought  with  me  from  Persia.  These 
I  sold  in  Berlin,  and  thus  became  enabled  to  buy  tickets  for  myself  and 
Abshallom  to  Hanover.  Here  I  called  at  the  office  of  the  American 
Consul,  who  helped  me  on  to  Salzbergen,  where  I  stopped  at  the  station 
depot  again  for  three  nights.    I  had  yet  some  German  Bibles  left,  and  a 


Jmjk 


SISTER  OF  I.  YOHANNAN  AND  HER  BABY. 

few  pieces  of  needle-work  or  embroidery,  and  tried  to  sell  both ;  but  ow- 
ing to  the  language,  of  which  I  understood  nothing,  and  to  the  fact 
that  the  inhabitants  were  all  Roman  Catholics.  I  could  not  dispose  of 
anything,  and  we  were  both  nearly  starved.  On  one  evening  I  set  out 
on  a  lonely  walk  and  was  lost  in  a  forest  through  which  I  wandered. 
I  could  not  find  my  way  back  to  the  station  until  nearly  4  o'clock  in  the 
morning.    But  while  wandering  on  and  on,  trying  to  find  the  depot,  I 


Letter  received  from  my  brother  Joseph  while  in  prison  at  Dixxa,  Oavar,  Turkey, 
stating  that  my  message  had  reached  him,  and  British  and  American  ambassadors 
had  been  informed  and  every  effort  was  being  made  to  secure  my  release,  etc. 


66 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


67 


crossed  some  fields,  and  was  overjoyed  when  I  noticed  some  turnips 
growing  in  one  of  them.  I  pulled  a  few  and  ate  them,  and  was  greatly 
refreshed.  I  did  not  forget,  either,  to  take  some  turnips  with  me  for 
Abshallom,  who  had  been  patiently  waiting  for  me  at  the  depot.  When 
first  he  caught  sight  of  me  he  cried  for  joy,  for  he  had  already  given  me 
up  for  lost,  thinking  I  had  been  killed  by  some  one  or  devoured  by  wild 
beasts.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  first  morning  train,  I  called  to  the  pas- 
sengers leaving  the  train,  "Is  there  any  person  who  can  speak  English?" 
Immediately  a  young  man  came  to  me,  and  upon  hearing  what  I  had  to 
say  to  him,  directed  me  to  Bentheim,  where,  he  said,  there  was  a  society 
called  "Newton."  After  several  hours  walk  I  came  to  that  place,  but 
found  the  people  very  unkind  and  irreligious.  They  said  they  were  not 
able  to  assist  us  in  any  manner.  When  I  left  this  place  tears  rolled  down 
my  cheeks,  and  I  knew  not  what  next  to  do,  but  thought  we  should 
surely  have  to  starve. 

As  I  was  walking  along  the  street,  almost  despairing,  I  saw  a  book 
store  with  some  Bibles  in  the  show  window.  Upon  finding  that  the 
keeper  could  understand  some  English  I  offered  him  my  Bibles  for  sale. 
He  called  me  in,  and,  after  learning  my  circumstances,  said  he  had  heard 
of  me  before.  He  fed  me,  and  gave  me  some  eatables  also  for  Abshal- 
lom, whom  I  had  left  at  the  depot.  Besides  this  he  presented  me  with 
ten  marks,  and  another  person,  who  was  present  and  overheard  our 
conversation,  handed  me  three  marks  more.  This  money  enabled  us  to 
go  to  Kampen,  Netherlands,  where  I  met  my  most  honorable  and  dearly 
beloved  professors  and  friends. 

At  Rotterdam  I  called  upon  Mr.  Ittman  and  some  other  friends, 
from  whom  I  received  donations  as  follows :  Fifteen  guldens  of  Mr. 
Ittman;  twenty  guldens  from  G.  Van  den  Boom;  twenty  guldens  from 
J.  L.  Van  den  Boom ;  ten  guldens  from  Mr.  Van  den  Kooi,  and  twenty- 
five  guldens  from  the  Reformed  Church  at  Rotterdam.  These  friends 
also  offered  to  purchase  for  me  a  second-class  ticket  to  New  York,  but 
I  declined  the  kind  offer,  saying  that  they  might  better  help  me  along 
in  my  work. 

I  therefore  left  Rotterdam  with  Abshallom  for  New  York. 
The  following  is  one  of  the  reports  of  my  schools  since  my  second 
arrival  in  this  country: 

Oroomiah,  Persia. 

Rev.  Isaac  Adams : 

Dear  Brother :  In  my  last  letter  I  sent  you  the  report  of  the  school 
of  Balaf,  and  also  of  Mart  Maryam.  Herewith  I  send  you  the  report 
of  the  other  schools : 


68 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


SCHOOL  OF  KARALARY— NUVIA,  Teacher. 

He  has  a  nice  and  warm  room  where  the  children  are  instructed. 

Class  i. — They  have  begun  with  the  spelling  book  and  have  com- 
pleted it,  and  also  have  read  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  are  up  to  tne 
15th  chapter  of  Mark,  and  they  are  taught  the  history  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  have  also  committed  to  memory  fifteen  pages  of  the  question 
book. 

Class  2. — This  class  also  began  with  the  spelling  book  and  have 
completed  the  same,  and  have  learned  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  also 
fifteen  pages  in  the  question  book.  This  class  was  brave  and  gave  good 
satisfaction  in  examination. 

Class  3. — They  arc  in  the  spelling  book  up  to  page  10,  and  three 
pages  in  the  question  book. 

Class  4. — They  are  all  small  children,  who  are  just  beginning  the 
spelling  book,  and  are  taught  the  Lord's  prayer. 

The  village  is  in  great  need  of  this  school,  but  it  is  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  be  faithful.  There  is  no  other  school  in  this  village,  neither 
is  there  any  other  Christian  worker.  It  is  a  grand  field  for  a  faithful 
teacher. 

SCHOOL  OF  MOORASCHERRY— GEWERGES,  Teacher. 

Class  1. — They  read  in  the  New  Testament  in  the  modern  Sy- 
riac  language,  and  also  in  Genesis  in  the  ancient  Syriac.  They  gave  a 
good  showing  in  arithmetic,  in  the  Lord's  prayer,  ten  commandments 
and  apostle's  creed.  They  also  have  had  stories  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  have  learned  to  write. 

Class  2. — They  began  with  the  spelling  book,  have  completed  the 
same,  and  also  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  are  now  in  the  Gospel  of 
Mark. 

Class  3. — They  began  with  the  spelling  book,  and  have  completed 
the  same,  and  have  just  started  in  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  _ 

Class  4. — There  are  six  boys  and  girls  just  beginnners  in  the  spelling 
book. 

In  all  the  classes  of  this  school,  instruction  is  given  in  the  Lord's 
prayer,  ten  commandments  and  apostle's  creed.  In  this  school  we  have 
three  children  of  Mohammedans  that  is  from  the  Sheah's  sect,  and  also 
a  Soonnces,  whose  name  is  Ali.  He  has  learned  two  pages  from  Goo- 
listan,  and  he  has  newly  begun  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  the  Persian 
language.  In  this  village  there  are  forty-two  houses ;  eighteen  are  Nes- 
torians  and  the  rest  are  Mohammedans,  and  there  is  no  other  school 
besides  this.  The  teacher  here  we  found  to  be  very  faithful.  Every 
evening  he  visits  the  houses  and  holds  conversation  about  Christ  with 
the  parents  of  the  children,  and  he  does  good  work  in  the  village.  There 
is  good  testimony  about  him  from  the  village.  He  is  a  worthy  ard 
faithful  young  man.  We  found  him  busy  with  his  school.  May  the  Lord 
bless  his  work.  It's  an  excellent  field  for  labor  among  Musselmen  and 
Nestorians. 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


69 


SCHOOL  OF  ALKAI — K.  BENYAMIN,  Teacher,  assisted  by  GE- 
WERGES,  Jr. 

The  total  of  pupils  here  at  present  is  thirty-two;  of  these,  fourteen 
are  boys  and  eighteen  are  girls.  One  girl  died  with  diphtheria ;  she  was 
II  years  of  age.   There  are  two  others  sick  in  bed. 

Class  I. — In  the  ancient  Syriac,  the  Gospel  of  Mark  and  in  Genesis 
up  to  the  17th  chapter.  In  the  Turkish  language,  they  have  begun 
in  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  up  to  the  10th  chapter.  In  Persian  they  have 
studied  three  chapters  in  Genesis.  In  arithmetic,  they  are  up  to  division ; 
and  they  have  a  good  knowledge  of  Bible  stories,  and  have  fine  hands 
for  writing. 

Class  2. — In  the  ancient  Syriac,  they  have  studied  nine  chapters  in 
the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  In  the  Turkish  language  they  have  studied  forty-  ~ 
three  pages  in  the  spelling  book.    In  the  modern  Syriac  they  study  in 
Genesis. 

Class  3. — In  the  ancient  Syriac,  with  its  translation  into  modern, 
they  have  begun  from  the  1st  chapter  of  Matthew  to  the  13th.  In  the 
Turkish  spelling  book  they  are  up  to  page  17,  and  have  a  good  start  in 
writing  sentences. 

Class  4. — In  the  modern  Syriac,  they  have  begun  from  the  1st  chap- 
ter of  Matthew  and  are  now  to  the  14th  chapter.  In  Genesis,  they  have 
just  begun  in  the  modern  Syriac. 

IN  THE  GIRL'S  DEPARTMENT. 

Class  1. — They  have  begun  with  Matthew  and  are  up  to  the  6th 
chapter  of  Luke.  They  have  studied  a  little  in  the  ancient  Syriac  from 
the  beginning  of  Matthew.  They  have  also  learned  the  smaller  arith- 
metic, and  have  three  pages  in  the  spelling  book  of  the  Turkish  language. 
They  also  have  penmanship. 

Class  2. — The  ancient  Syriac  began  from  the  first  of  Matthew  and 
they  are  now  up  to  the  14th  chapter  of  Mark.  They  have  just  started 
to  learn  to  write. 

Class  3. — They  are  all  in  the  spelling  book. 

The  most  of  the  boys  and  girls  in  this  school,  except  the  3rd  class 
of  the  girl's  department,  can  recite  the  Lord's  prayer  and"  apostle's!  creed, 
and  some  of  the  higher  classes  can  also  recite  the  ten  commandments. 

The  teachers  are  very  faithful  and  quiet  and  love  teaching  the  pupils. 
This  school  is  in  good  order,  but  all  the  work  in  it,  we  may  say,1  is  the 
fruit  of  Kasha  Benyamin,  who  is  in  great  anxiety  for  its  success,  j 

SCHOOL  OF  DARBARY— AYRAHAM,  Teacher. 

Class  1. — Study  the  New  Testament  up  to  the  Gospel  of  John,  and 
the  Old  Testament  up  to  Exodus ;  arithmetic  up  to  subtraction ;  spelling 
up  to  writing  of  sentences. 

Class  2. — Fourteen  boys  and  girls  are  in  this  class.  They  are  all 
in" the  spelling  book,  and  instructions  are  given  to  them  in  Bible  stories, 


7J 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


71 


and  they  are  taught  the  Lord's  prayer,  ten  commandments  and  apostle's 
creed.  Karram,  a  Mohammedan,  has  studied  five  chapters  in  Goolistan, 
and  two  chapters  in  Tarrusel,  and  seven  chapters  from  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  in  the  Persian  language.  In  the  Syriac  language,  he  is  in  the 
speller. 

The  teacher  does  the  house  to  house  visitations  every  evening  and 
people  are  glad  to  receive  him  and  listen  to  the  Gospel  stories.  We  have 
had  good  testimony  for  him  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  village,  and  they 
are  all  pleased  with  his  work  and  manner  of  conduct.  There  is  no  other 
school  building  here  besides  ours.  The  school  is  not  very  comfortable 
as  the  roof  is  quite  low. 

SCHOOL  OF  KARASANLOVI,  ASYAD,  Teacher. 

Class  i. — Completed  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  and  are  now 
to  the  14th  chapter  of  Luke.  And  in  the  Turkish  language  they  have 
studied  fifteen  pages  in  the  speller,  writing  of  words  and  sentences. 

Class  2. — Up  to  the  12th  chapter  of  Mark.  Catechetical  instruc- 
tions— that  is,  Bible  stories,  ten  commandments,  Lord's  prayer,  etc., 
are  given  to  this  and  all  the  other  classes. 

Class  3. — Completed  the  speller,  and  studied  thirteen  pages  in  the 
book  called  Deaf  and  Dumb.  They  will  soon  begin  with  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew. 

Class  4. — They  have  started  the  speller  and  have  gone  to  the  21st 
page.  Lord's  prayer  they  have  committed  to  memory. 

Class  5. — There  are  thirteen  boys  and  girls  and  all  are  beginners. 
I  can  most  heartily  speak  a  good  word  for  Teacher  Asyad,  for  her  care 
and  earnestness  in  teaching  these  little  ones  the  fear  of  the  Lord  and  the 
spiritual  catachism.  The  subject  which  they  study  she  causes  them 
to  understand.  Her  aim  is  not  only  to  put  the  truth  in  the  heads  of  her 
pupils,  but  also  in  the  heart,  and  she  does  not  hesitate  to  teach  the 
stories  in  the  Bible. 

This  is  the  only  school  in  Karasanlovi. 

SCHOOL  OF  BORASHAN,  AGASY,  Teacher. 

Class  1. — In  the  ancient  Syriac,  they  began  from  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  and  are  up  to  the  24th  chapter,  with  the  translation  in  the 
modern  Syriac.  And  reading  from  the  different  parts  of  the  Testament. 
Have  completed  the  smaller  arithmetic  and  started  the  larger  one. 

Class  2. — Have  studied  twenty-seven  chapters  in  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  in  the  modern  Syriac,  and  two  chapters  in  the  ancient  Syriac, 
and  smaller  arithmetic. 

Class  3. — Began  with  the  speller  and  completed  the  same,  and  have 
also  studied  six  chapters  in  Mark. 

Class  4. — Started  the  beginning  of  speller  and  have  completed  the 
same ;  have  studied  three  chapters  of  Mark. 

Class  5. — There  are  nine  boys  and  girls.  They  are  all  in  the  speller. 

All  the  classes  in  this  school,  except  the  4th  and  5th,  can  recite  the 


PERSONAL  HISTORY 


73 


Lord's  prayer,  ten  commandments  and  the  apostle's  creed,  while  the 
two  classes  can  recite  the  Lord's  prayer  only. 
This  is  the  only  school  in  this  village. 

SCHOOL  OF  ERIAVA,  K.  PATROUS,  Teacher. 

This  school  had  thirty-two  pupils,  but,  because  a  missionary  came 
to  the  village  and  gave  alms  to  the  poor,  eight  children  went  away  to 
get  alms.  There  are  two  other  schools  besides  our  own  here, — one  of  the 
Roman  Catholics,  and  one  of  the  Presbyterians ;  but  the  number  of 
pupils  in  our  school  exceeds  both  of  the  others.  I  suppose  the  children 
who  went  to  the  other  school  to  get  alms  will  soon  come  back,  that  is, 
after  the  alms-giving  is  suspended. 

Class  i. — The  New  Testament  in  the  ancient  Syriac  has  been  studied 
with  translation  into  that  of  modern.  The  larger  arithmetic,  up  to 
subtraction.  In  the  speller,  up  to  writing  words  and  sentences,  and 
catechetical  instruction. 

Class  2. — Modern  Syriac,  first  three  Gospels,  smaller  arithmetic 
and  writing. 

Class  3. — Modern  Syriac,  begun  from  the  first  part  of  Matthew  up  to 
12th  chapter;  previously  they  repeated  the  speller. 

Class  4. — Began  the  speller  and  have  completed  it  and  started  from 
the  Gospel  of  Luke. 

Class  5. — They  are  all  small  children  and  are  just  beginners. 

SCHOOL  OF  SANGAR,  AB  SHALOM,  Teacher. 

Class  1. — Have  studied  Genesis,  with  the  translation  from  the  an- 
cient to  modern  Syriac.  Have  completed  the  question  books.  Have 
studied  arithmetic  to  subtraction,  and  from  the  Gospel  they  have  studied 
ten  chapters  in  Matthew  and  seventeen  in  Mark. 

Class  2. — They  have  studied  six  chapters  of  Genesis,  with  the  trans- 
lation from  the  ancient  to  the  modern  Syriac.  They  are  nearly  through 
with  the  question  book.  They  have  studied  arithmetic  to  subtraction. 
They  have  started  with  the  Gospel  of  Matthew. 

Class  3. — They  have  studied  fifteen  chapters  in  the  Gospel  of  Luke, 
with  translations  from  ancient  to  modern  Syriac,  and  five  chapters  in 
Genesis,  in  the  modern  Syriac  language.-  All  these  classes  have  also 
writing,  and  are  able  to  repeat  the  Lord's  prayer  and  ten  command- 
ments, and  also  have  learned  many  passages  out  of  the  Scriptures. 

Class  4. — There  are  eight  boys  and  girls  in  this  class  and  all  are  just 
beginners.   They  have  just  begun  with  the  speller. 

SCHOOL  OF  KOOM",  ABRAHAM,  Teacher. 

Class  1. — Completed  the  speller  and  started  in  the  Gospel  of  Matt- 
hew. They  are  up  to  the  Gospel  of  Luke ;  of  course,  they  simply  give 
a  repetition  to  the  speller ;  small  arithmetic. 


74 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Class  2. — They  have  just  completed  the  speller,  expect  them  to 
begin  with  the  Gospel  soon. 

Class  3. — They  are  advanced  in  the  speller. 

Class  4. — They  are  all  beginners.  Instruction  in  Bible  stories,  the 
Lord's  prayer,  ten  commandments,  and  apostle's  creed  is  given  in  this 
school.  There  are  no  other  schools  besides  ours  in  this  village.  All 
the  schools  (eleven)  begin  between  8  and  9  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

First,  after  all  pupils  are  present,  leaving  their  shoes  in  the  hall 
while  keeping  on  their  hats,  the  teachers  read  a  portion  of  the  Scriptures, 
after  which  he  puts  simple  questions  to  the  pupils  concerning  what  he 
has  read ;  then  he  opens  with  prayer.  Then  he  starts  from  the  first  class, 
and  so  forth,  listening  to  their  recitations.  The  teacher  is  sitting  in  the 
center  of  the  room,  and  when  the  class  comes  to  recite,  they  form  a 
circle  around  him,  while  the  other  pupils  are  sitting  against  the  walls 
of  the  room,  yet  the  pupils  are  allowed  to  ask  questions  at  any  time. 
The  -school  is  closed  with  one  of  the  pupils  reciting  the  Lord's  prayer ; 
that  is  about  12  o'clock.  School  starts  again  at  1  o'clock  and  closes 
at  5  o'clock.  The  last  hour,  between  4  and  5  o'clock,  is  given  entirely 
to  Bible  instructions. 

Most  of  our  schools  meet  on  Sunday  with  the  teachers,  in  like 
manner,  for  religious  purposes.  The  pupils  who  are  in  advance  will  re- 
cite seven  verses,  anywhere  out  of  the  Bible,  and  the  others  will  recite 
one,  and  some  just  one  sentence,  as  ''God  is  love." 

As  has  been  stated  previously,  the  teacher  visits  the  homes  and  the 
parents  of  the  children  and  tries  to  increase  the  attendance  in  the  school, 
and  speaks  to  the  parents  about  the  Gospel. 

The  field  is  great  and  the  laborers  are  few,  but  let  it  be  known  to 
you  that  the  work  is  progressing  nicely  and  the  prospects  grow  brighter 
every  day.  We  may  expect  a  great  work  in  the  future.  We  hope  every- 
thing will  be  written  to  you  fully,  that  you  may  know  that  the  efforts 
of  our  friends  have  not  been  in  vain.  May  the  dear  Lord  reward  them 
in  His  kingdom  above.    Amen.  Yours  truly, 

KASHA  OSHANA. 
ESHAKAN, 

Examiners. 

This  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  report  I  have  received.  I  believe 
this  is  a  statement  which  will  make  the  hearts  of  those  who  have  helped 
in  my  work,  with  their  small  and  great  donation,  rejoice  in  the  Lord 
with  thankfulness;  that  through  these  gifts  there  had  been  planted 
eleven  schools,  children  and  youths  are  being  taught  not  only  educa- 
tion and  civilization ;  but  the  secret  knowledge  of  our  blessed  Redeemer, 
who  loved  such  as  these,  and  who  said,  "As  much  as  you  do  unto  these 
little  ones,  ye  do  unto  me." 

Surely,  we  may  say  that  the  Lord  reigneth,  and  who  knows  but  out 


PERSONAL  HISTORY. 


75 


of  this  humble  work  we  may  see  a  great  opening  for  the  proclamation  of 
the  Gospel  in  my  country. 

I  deemed  it  necessary  to  send  my  brother  Abraham  to  care  for  this 
work  during  my  absence,  and  he,  therefore,  left  New  York  October, 

The  following  is  a  letter  from  my  brother  Abraham,  received 
lately : 

Mart-Maryan,* 

Oroomiah,  Persia. 

Dear  Brother :  I  have  just  returned  from  Karasanlovi,  whereas, 
I  was  yesterday  in  Alkai.  I  am  glad  that  I  can  give  you  a  good  report 
concerning  the  schools.  I  found  also  that  the  ignorance  and  superstition 
of  the  people  is  almost  without  description.  The  men  say,  woman  has 
no  part  in  the  resurrection,  and  the  women  themselves  have  no  knowl- 
edge of  future  life ;  but  to  their  great  surprise  they  have  heard  and  hear 
about  God's  love  to  them,  and  the  story  of  the  cross  seems  so  wonder- 
ful to  them  that  they  cannot  believe  it,  especially  that  He  should  care 
for  them  and  be  their  Savior. 

At  first  there  was  some  prejudice  as  to  the  school  and  the  work, 
but  now  many  come  to  hear  and  ask  about  that  wonderful  Savior. 

Some  people,  more  especially  the  older  ones,  have  a  great  idea  that 
heaven  is  to  be  merited  by  strict  observance  of  the  fastings,  especially 
at  this  time,  as  fifty  days  are  observed  before  Easter.  But,  as  you  know, 
they  abstain  from  meat  and  oily  substances,  but  they  do  not  cease  to 
swear  and  do  other  wicked  things.  However,  thanks  be  to  God,  that  the 
power  of  the  holy  life  of  Christ  is  seen  in  the  respect  now  shown  them, 
and  in  the  increasing  readiness  to  hear  them  again  and  again. 

At  9  o'clock  the  examination  commenced  in  the  schoolroom,  which 
was  crowded  by  the  parents  and  people  of  the  village. 

The  pupils  occupied  the  middle  of  the  room.  The  studies  in  which 
they  were  examined  were  modern  and  ancient  Syriac,  Persian  and  Turk- 

*Two  wards  of  Oroomiah  city  are  inhabited  by  Christians.  One  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Gol  patali-Khan ;  here  live  the  Armenians,  and 
among  them  is  the  French  mission  headquarters ;  the!  other  is  inhabited 
by  the  Assyrians  or  Nestorians.  American  and  English  mission  workers 
have  their  headquarters  here.  This  part  is  known  by  the  name  of  Mart- 
Maryan.  The  name  is  taken  from  the  church  erected  here  in  the  honor 
of  the  Virgin  Mary.  The  'tradition  as  to  the  erection  of  a  church  here 
is,  that  a  priest,  while  asleep,  dreamt  that  a  woman  appeared  to  him. 
He  asked  her  name.  She  answered:  "I  am  Mary,  mother  of  Jesus; 
thou  shalt  build  a  church  here  in  my  name,  and  let  all  mothers,  who  may 
lack  milk  to;nourish  their  children,  come  to  my  shrine,  and  I  will  make 
their  supply  plentiful."  So  the  women,  of  all  religions,  from  distant  parts 
of  the  country,  will  come  with  wax  candles,  sheep  and  dove  sacrifices, 
and  also  with  the  incense,  to  seek  her  blessing. 


76 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ish  languages,  geography,  spelling,  arithmetic,  Bible  history,  reading 
and  writing.  But  what  pleased  me  most  was  the  recitations  of  the  differ- 
ent verses  and  passages  of  Scripture,  one  child  reciting  a  whole  chapter. 
And  in  all  the  work  the  pupils  did  credit  both  to  themselves  and  their 
teacher.  The  singing  especially  pleased  the  parents,  many  of  whom 
loudly  expressed  their  astonishment,  especially  at  seeing  that  the  girls 
as  well  as  the  boys  could  be  educated. 

The  teacher  not  only  taught  them  to  pray,  but  also  to  love  Jesus; 
and  she  is  in  the  habit  of  praying  with  different  pupils,  alone,  each  day, 
and  the  school  also  is  opened  and  closed  with  prayer.  The  teacher  has 
also  done  much  to  interest  the  parents  in  religion. 

In  short,  I  can  say  that  the  good  seed  is  being  sown,  and  hope  the 
Lord  will  bless  the  work  and  will  strengthen  the  teachers  to  do  still  more 
for  the  Master. 

My  brother,  do  all  you  can,  through  the  help  of  God,  to  spread  the 
Gospel  of  our  dear  Lord  to  these  ignorant  and  superstitious  people. 
I  assure  you  that  your  struggles  have  not  been  in  vain. 

I  am,  your  brother, 

ABRAHAM  ADAMS. 


PART  II. 

PERSIA,  ITS  MANNERS,   CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND 
SOCIAL  LIFE. 

HISTORY  OF  PERSIA. 

Persia  is  .called  Iran  by  the  natives.  It  extends  nine  hundred  miles 
west  and  east  and  seven  hundred  miles  north  and  south.  The  present 
boundaries  are:  The  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Transcaucasian  provinces  of 
Russia  on  the  north;  Bokhara,  Afghanistan  and  Boloochistan  on  the 
east ;  the  Straits  of  Ormuz  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south ;  Asiatic 
Turkey  on  the  west.   It  has  an  area  of  648,000  square  miles. 

Many  nations  of  whom  we  read  in  the  Bible  and  in  history  have 
lived  or  had  their  representatives  in  Persia,  but  only  one  of  these  is  in 
existence  at  the  present  time.  We  know  of  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  Baby- 
lonians, Greeks  and  Romans  as  having  once  been  prevailing  powers, 
mighty  empires  of  the  world ;  but  they  have  either  vanished  from  the 
face  of  the  earth  or  their  power  and  glory  has  faded  away  and  they  have 
dwindled  into  insignificant  provinces  of  other  empires  and  kingdoms. 
Persia  has  held  its  own ;  it  still  occupies  the  same  position  it  did  cen- 
turies ago. 

It  is  also  remarkable  as  a  Bible-land.  By  many  Persia  is  claimed 
as  the  region  where  the  Garden  of  Eden  was  situated;  where  Abraham 


Irs 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


was  born ;  where  Daniel  prophesied.  It  was  under  the  rule  of  Cyrus  the 
Great,  and  the  home  of  the  wise  men  who  were  the  first  representatives 
of  the  gentiles  who  came  to  worship  the  infant  born  Christ.*  When 
Assyria  led  the  Jews  captive  to  Babylon,  it  was  Persia  who  humbled 
her  power  and  vanity  and  restored  Judah  to  her  native  land,  to  rebuild 
the  house  of  the  Lord. 

Her  glory,  today,  has  flown  away  and  her  splendor  has  faded,  but 
her  physical  beauty  still  remains.  Persia  is  a  paradise,  intoxicating  peo- 
ple with  the  fragrance  of  its  roses.  It  is  a  garden,  wreathing  the  faces 
of  mankind  into  smiles  by  its  beautiful  streams. 

The  national  emblem  of  the  empire  is  the  lion  and  the  sun,  which 
accounts  for  the  fact  that  it  is  occasionally  called  the  land  of  the  lion 
and  the  sun. 

Persia  was  added  to  the  first  Assyrian  Empire  by  Minus  about  2050 
years  B.  C.  It  appears  again  in  its  independent  state  1937  B.  C,  under 
Chedorlaomer. 

He  allied  himself  with  three  other  kings  and  conquered  the  kings 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  and  three  other  kings  of  that  region  and  made 
them  pay  him  tribute.  After  twelve  years  of  servitude  these  kings  re- 
belled. Chedorlaomer  came  again  and  gained  a  great  victory  and  carried 
off  a  rich  booty.  Even  Lot,  who  dwelt  in  that  region  was  carried  off. 
Abraham  with  his  318  trained  servants  and  some  confederates  fell  upon 
,  Chedorlaomer  by  night  and  surprised  him  and  rescued  the  captives. 
Loses  its  identity  again  as  a  kingdom  1661  B.  C,  in  the  Assyrian  Em- 
pire. The  great  Assyrian  monarchs  conquered  the  northwestern  part  of 
Persia,  which  was  inhabited  by  the  Medes,  a  sister  people  to  the  Persians. 
They  also  extended  their  conquests  to  the  westward  and  conquered 
Syria  and  Samaria.  They  carried  off  the  "Ten  Tribes  of  Israel"  into 
captivity  and  settled  them  in  the  land  of  the  Medes,  the  regions  about 
,  Lake  Oroomiah,  and  no  doubt  the  descendants  of  the  "Lost  Tribes" 
dwell  in  that  part  of  Persia  to  this  day. 

Appears  again  with  Media  in  the  revolt  of  Media  and  Persia  under 
Deioces,  709  B.  C. 

Under  King  Cyaxares,  the  Medes  threw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  and 
allying  themselves  with  Nabopolasser,  the  father  of  the  great  Nebuched- 
nezzar,  they  captured  and  destroyed  Nineveh  in  the  year  606  B.  C. 
They  then  extended  their  conquests  westward  into  Asia  Minor.  Many 

*According  to  tradition  the  tomb  of  one  of  the  three  wise  men  is 
located  near  my  home,  and  a  church  is  erected  at  Mart-Maryan  in  his 
honor. 


Manners,  customs,  habits  and  social  Life. 


•9 


fierce  wars  were  fought  between  the  Medes  and  the  Lydians.  During 
one  of  these  battles  the  sun  was  suddenly  eclipsed  and  turned  the  day 
•into  a  dark  night.  This  so  terrified  the  terrified  combatants  that  both 
parties  were  eager  to  conclude  peaces  The  river  Halys  in  Armenia  was 
made  the  boundary  line  and  the  peace  was  cemented  by  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  daughter  of  a  Lydian  king  and  Astyages,  the  son  of  King 
Cyaxares.  This  Cyaxares  had  some  years  before  given  his  daughter 
Amytis  in  marriage  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon.  Upon  the 
death  of  Cyaxares  his  son  Astyages  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Media, 
and  about  the  same  time  the  celebrated  Croesus  succeeded  to  the  Lydian 
throne.  Thus  the  three  great  monarchs  of  that  day,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Astyages  and  Croesus  were  brothers-in-jaw  and  formed  a  sort  of  triple 
alliance  against  the  rising  power  of  Persia.  Is  included  in  the  kingdom 
of  Media.  Cyrus  the  great,  in  559  B.  C,  gives  it  prominence  as  the 
foundation  of  the  Great  Persian  Empire,  which  lasted  229  years. 

The  great  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  carried  the  Jews  into  captivity, 
had  now  been  dead  over  twenty  years.  Upon  his  throne  sat  a  man  of 
different  family  named  Nabonadius,  who  associated  with  him  in  the 
kingdom  his  son,  Belshazzar.  Nabonadius,  it  appears,  was  out  on  the 
open  plains  fighting  Cyrus,  while  Belshazzar  was  left  in  the  strong  walled 
city  of  Babylon,  "And  Belshazzar  the  king  made  a  great  feast  to  a 
thousand  of  his  lords,  and  drank  wine  before  the  thousand.  Belshazzar, 
while  he  tasted  the  wine,  commanded  to  bring  the  golden  and  silver 
vessels  which  his  father,  Nebuchadnezzar,  had  taken  out  of  the  temple, 
which  was  in  Jerusalem ;  that  the  king  and  his  princes,  his  wives  and 
his  concubines  might  drink  therein.  Then  they  brought  the  golden  ves- 
sels that  were  taken  out  of  the  house  of  God,  which  was  in  Jerusalem, 
and  the  king  and  princes,  his  wives  and  his  concubines  drank  in  them. 
They  drank  wine  and  praised  the  gods  of  gold  and  of  silver,  of  brass, 
of  iron,  of  wood  and  of  stone."  But  in  the  midst  of  this  wicked  revelry, 
the  king  beheld  with  terror  a  hand  writing  upon  the  wall.  "Mene,  Mene, 
Tekel,  Upharsin,"  were  the  words  written.  These  were  interpreted  by 
captive  Daniel  to  mean  "God  hath  numbered  thy  kingdom  and  finished 
it.  Thou  art  weighed  in  the  balances,  and  art  found  wanting.  Thy  king- 
dom is  divided  and  given  to  the  Medes  and  Persians."  "In  that  night 
was  Belshazzar  the  king  of  the  Chaldeans  slain." 

THE  PROCLAMATION  OF  CYRUS. 

Cyrus  was  not  an  idolater.  The  Persians  were  Zoroastrians  and  be- 
lieved in  one  God,  the  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth.   Cyrus  found  among 


80 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  various  tribes  of  Babylon  a  peculiar  people  who  likewise  were  not 
idolaters.  Upon  inquiring  he  learned  their  history,  and  moved  by  the 
Lord  he  issued  the  following  proclamation : 

"Thus  sayeth  Cyrus,  King  of  Persia;  the  Lord  God  of  Heaven 
hath  given  me  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth ;  and  He  hath  charged  me  to 
build  him  a  house  in  Jerusalem,  which  is  in  Judah. 

"Who  is  there  among  you  of  all  His  people?  his  God  be  with  him, 
and  let  him  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  which  is  in  Judah,  and  build  the  house 
of  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  (He  is  the  God)  which  is  in  Jerusalem. 

"And  whosoever  remaineth  in  any  place  where  he  sojourneth,  let 
the  men  of  his  place  help  him  with  silver  and  with  gold  and  witli  goods, 
and  with  beasts,  besides  the  free-will  offering  for  the  house  of  God  that  is 
in  Jerusalem." 

Thus,  by  the  order  of  Cyrus  the  Great,  were  the  Jews  after  their 
long  captivity  allowed  to  return  to  their  land  and  to  rebuild  their  temple. 
Later  kings  confirmed  this  order  and  also  gave  orders  for  rebuilding 
the  city  walls.  The  Jews  then  remained  subject  to  the  Persian  Kings 
until  the  Persian  Empire  fell  under  Alexander  the  Great  two  hundred 
years  later. 

DEATH  OF  CYRUS. 

The  latter  part  of  the  life  of  Cyrus  is  wrapped  in  obscurity,  and  the 
manner  of  his  death  is  not  known,  but  Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  follow- 
ing story  is  most  worthy  of  credit :  Having  decided  to  make  war  upon 
the  Massagetae,  a  fierce  tribe  that  dwelt  on  the  north  of  Persia,  he 
marched  against  them  with  a  large  army.  The  Massagetae  had  no 
king,  but  were  ruled  by  a  queen  named  Tomyris,  a  woman  of  great  cour- 
age and  might,  and'  cunning  and  wise  exceedingly. 

During  the  night  before  the  great  battle,  Cyrus  had  a  dream  in 
which  he  saw  his  cousin,  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspcs,  with  two  im- 
mense wings  upon  his  shoulders.  With  the  one  wing  he  overshadowed 
Asia,  and  with  the  other,  Europe.  At  first  Cyrus  was  inclined  to  suspect 
that  his  cousin  was  plotting  against  him,  but  he  was  warned  that  he  was 
approaching  his  end  and  that  Darius  should  be  king  of  Persia. 

In  the  great  battle  that  followed  Cyrus  was  slain,  and  Queen 
Tomyris  ordered  his  head  to  be  severed  from  his  body,  and  throwing 
it  into  a  skin  filled  with  blood,  she  told  him  to  drink  his  fill  now  of  what 
he  had  so  thirsted  during  his  lifetime.    Re  this  story  true  or  not,  the 


MANNERS,  customs,  sAbits  And  social  LlM  si 


body  of  Cyrus  was  taken  to  Pasargadae  and  there  buried  in  sacred  ground 
and  his  tomb  may  be  seen  to  this  day. 

CAMBYSES. 

Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  his  oldest  son,  Cambyses,  who  added  Egypt 
to  the  kingdom  of  Persia.  We  are  told  that  he  sent  to  the  Pharoah  of 
Egypt  and  asked  him  for  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The  Pharoah,  not 
daring  to  disappoint  so  powerful  a  monarch,  and  at  the  same  time  un- 
willing to  send  his  only  and  beloved  daughter  to  a  strange  land  and  a 
strange  people,  hit  upon  the  dangerous  expedient  of  sending  a  beautiful 
girl  of  royal  blood,  but  not  his  daughter.  The  deception  was  discovered 
by  Cambyses  and  he  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt  in  consequence. 

If  we  are  to  believe  Herodotus,  Cambyses  acted  like  a  mad  man 
while  down  in  Egypt.  But  Herodotus  had  all  his  information  from  the 
Egyptian  priests,  who,  of  course,  hated  the  Persians,  and  made  out  a 
bad  story.  Having  heard  of  the  Long  Lived  Ethiopians,  v.  ho  dwelt  to 
the  south  of  Egypt,  he  desired  to  conquer  their  country  too.  He  ac- 
I  cordingly  sent  spies  into  their  country  with  presents  to  the  king.  These 
spies  having  arrived  in  that  country  and  delivered  the  king's  presents, 
they  addressed  the  king  as  follows :  "Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  de- 
sirous of  becoming  your  friend  and  ally,  has  sent  us,  bidding  us  confer 
with  you,  and  he  presents  you  with  these  presents  which  are  such  as  he 
I  himself  most  delights  in."  But  the  Ethiopians,  knowing  that  they  came 
as  spies,  replied :  "The  King  of  Persia  has  not  sent  you  with  these  pres- 
ents to  me  because  he  values  my  friendship,  and  you  do  not  speak  the 
truth,  for  you  have  come  here  as  spies.  Neither  is  your  king  a  just  man, 
for  if  he  were,  he  would  not  desire  any  other  territory  than  his  own,  nor 
would  he  reduce  people  into  servitude  who  have  done  him  no  harm. 
However,  give  him  this  bow,  and  say  these  words  to  him :  'The  King 
of  the  Ethiopians  advises  the  King  of  the  Persians,  when  the  Persians 
can  thus  easily  draw  a  bow  of  this  size,  then  to  make  war  upon  the  Long 
Lived  Ethiopians  with  more  numerous  forces;  but  until  that  time,  let 
him  thank  the  gods,  who  have  not  inspired  the  sons  of  the  Ethiopians 
with  a  desire  of  adding  another  land  to  their  own.'  " 

The  Ethiopians  were  a  very  strong  and  powerful  race  of  men,  re- 
puted to  have  lived  to  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  years.  The 
bow  very  few  Persians  were  able  to  draw  at  all. 

When  Cambyses  heard  the  reply  from  the  king  of  the  Ethiopians, 
he  was  filled  with  rage,  and  rash  and  impulsive  as  he  was,  he  ordered 
his  army  to  be  set  in  motion  at  once,  without  waiting  to  make  the  neces- 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


sary  preparations.  It  was  not  long  before  all  the  supplies  gave  out.  The 
country  through  which  they  passed  was  a  desert  and  starvation  or  a 
retracing  of  their  steps  were  the  only  alternatives. 

The  king  finally  ordered  a  retreat.  When  he  reached  Egypt  again, 
he  found  all  the  people  rejoicing  on  every  hand.  The  priests  had  an- 
nounced that  their  god,  Osiris,  had  appeared  among  them — a  calf  had 
been  found  bearing  the  marks  of  the  god  upon  it,  the  incarnation  of  the 
god — hence  the  rejoicing.  Cambyses  was  in  a  bad  mood  and  took  it  into 
his  head  they  were  rejoicing  over  his  misfortune.  He  was  told  of  the 
cause  of  their  joy.  He  demanded  to  see  the  god.  When  the  priests 
brought  Apis,  the  calf-god,  into  the  presence  of  the  king,  Cambyses  drew 
his  dagger  and  stabbed  the  calf  in  the  thigh  so  that  it  died.  Then, 
bursting  into  a  fit  of  laughter,  he  said  "Ye  blockheads,  are  there  such 
gods  as  these,  consisting  of  flesh  and  blood,  and  sensible  of  steel?  This, 
truly,  is  a  god  worthy  of  the  Egyptians."  Shortly  after  this,  Cambyses 
was  informed  that  a  usurper,  who  pretended  to  be  his  brother  Smerdis, 
had  ascended  the  throne  of  Persia.  Now  Cambyses  had  out  of  jealousy 
and  fear,  put  his  brother  Smerdis  to  death.  The  usurper  was  a  magician 
priest  who  had  assumed  the  scepter,  established  the  magician  fire-wor- 
ship, and  even  issued  an  order  stopping  the  building  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem.  Cambyses  immediately  set  out  for  home.  On  mounting 
his  horse  one  day  he  accidentally  stabbed  himself  in  the  thigh.  The  wound 
was  more  serious  than  he  supposed.  Mortification  set  in.  His  physi- 
cians told  him  that  he  would  die.  But  he  steadily  refused  to  believe  it, 
for  he  said  it  had  been  told  him  by  an  astrologer  that  his  death  would 
occur  at  Ecbatana.  He  had,  therefore,  studiously  avoided  going  to  Ecba- 
tana,  the  capital  of  Media.  He  firmly  believed  in  the  prediction.  After 
a  few  days,  however,  he  was  unable  to  go  any  further.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  halt  in  a  little  village  in  Syria.  He  asked  where  they  were  and 
was  told  that  the  village  was  named  Ecbatana  in  Syria.  He  now  saw 
the  fulfillment  of  the  prediction  and  knew  that  he  must  die.  He  con- 
fessed the  murder  of  his  brother  and  charged  his  officers  to  put  down  the 
usurper  and  restore  the  government  to  the  royal  family.  The  Egyptian 
priests  believed  that  the  untimely  death  of  Cambyses  was  a  punishment 
for  the  sacrilege  he  had  committed  against  their  god  Osiris,  and  pointed 
to  the  manner  of  his  death  as  an  evidence — a  wound  in  the  thigh. 

DARIUS  HYSTASPES. 

Darius  Hystaspes  put  down  the  imposter,  restored  order  and  the 
Zoroasterian  religion,  gave  orders  to  resume  the  works  on  the  temple 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


83 


oi  Jerusalem,  and  reorganized  the  empire.  He  then  entered  upon  a  Eu- 
ropean campaign.  Having  collected  a  large  army  he  crossed  the  Helles- 
pont into  Europe.  He  built  a  bridge  across  the  lower  Danube  and  crossed 
over  into  what  is  now  southern  Russia.  He  was  making  war  upon  the 
Scythian  hordes.  They  had  sent  all  the;r  women  and  children  and  the 
greater  part  of  their  herds  and  flocks  northward  for  safety.  As  Darius 
advanced  they  moved  forward,  never  stopping  to  give  him  battle,  always 
moving  from  place  to  place,  and  Darius  pursuing  from  day  to  day. 
Finally  Darius  lost  all  patience  and  sent  them  word  if  they  were  men 
they  should  halt  and  give  battle.  The  chief  of  the  Scythians  replied  that 
they  were  not  fleeing  before  Darius.  They  were  doing  now  as  they  al- 
ways  do,  moving  from  place  to  place.  If  Darius  desired  to  follow  them 
as  he  was  doing  they  had  no  objection  to  it.  As  to  fighting,  they  had 
nothing  to  fight  for,  except  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors.  Come  and 
find  them  and  then  see  if  the  Scythians  can  fight. 

After  some  time  Darius  had  spent  his  supplies  and  was  in  a  great 
strait.  The  Scythians,  hearing  of  the  situation,  sent  a  herald  to  Darius 
bearing  as  gifts  a  bird,  a  frog,  a  mouse  and  five  arrows.  These  he  de- 
livered to  Darius,  with  the  remark  that  if  the  Persians  were  wise  they 
would  discover  the  meaning  of  the  gifts. 

The  Persians  consulted  together.  Darius  was  of  the  opinion  that  the 
Scythians  meant  to  surrender  to  him — the  mouse  meaning  the  land,  the 
frog  the  water,  the  bird  the  air,  and  the  arrows  the  arms.  All  this  the 
Scythians  would  deliver  to  Darius.  But  Gobryas,  one  of  the  seven  fore- 
most princes  of  Persia,  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  Scythians  would 
say  to  the  Persians  "Unless  you  fly  away  through  the  air  like  a  bird, 
or  hide  in  the  earth  like  a  mouse,  or  dive  into  the  lakes  like  a  frog,  we 
will  shoot  you  to  death  with  our  arrows."  His  opinion  prevailed  among 
the  Persian  chiefs. 

Darius  then  decided  to  return.  Now  he  had  given  orders  to  the 
Greeks,  who  kept  the  bridge,  to  destroy  the  bridge  if  they  saw  fit  to  do 
so,  if  he  were  not  back  in  sixty  days.  The  time  was  up  and  he  had  not 
returned.  If  the  Greeks  should  have  destroyed  the  bridge  he  would 
be  at  the  mercy  of  the  Scythians,  who  hotly  pursued  him.  To  his  great 
joy  he  found  that  the  bridge  had  been  preserved.  He  thus  succeeded 
in  making  his  retreat  without  loss  or  disaster. 

THE  IONIAN  REVOLT. 

Shortly  after  the  Scythian  campaign  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor 
with  Miletus  in  the  lead  revolted  from  Darius.   The  Greek  States  of  the. 


84 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Continent  of  Europe  failed  to  send  aid  to  their  struggling  kinsmen,  with 
the  exception  of  Athens  and  a  little  city  of  Euboea.  The  struggle  began 
with  the  burning  of  the  Persian  capital  of  Asia  Minor,  Sardis,  and  ended 
with  the  burning  of  Miletus.  The  Greek  cities  were  all  reduced  under 
Persia  again.  After  the  revolt  was  put  down  the  king  inquired  as  to 
who  the  Athenians  were  and  when  told  they  were  only  a  little  city  State 
he  was  greatly  enraged  that  so  small  a  State  should  presume  to  interfere 
with  his  subjects.  He  appointed  an  officer  whose  duty  it  should  be  to 
arise  at  each  meal  and  exclaim  "O  King,  remember  the  Athenians." 

The  king  made  preparations  for  punishing  the  insolent  Athenians 
and  to  reduce  all  the  Greek  States.  He  sent  heralds  to  Macedonia  and 
the  Greek  cities  demanding  earth  and  water  as  tokens  of  submission. 
Macedonia  and  the  Greek  cities  gave  the  earth  and  the  water  except 
Athens  and  Sparta.  The  Athenians  cast  the  heralds  into  a  pit  and  the 
Spartans  in  the  true  Spartan  fashion  cast  the  heralds,  who  demanded 
the  earth  and  water,  into  a  well  and  told  them  to  help  themselves. 

XERXES. 

Darius  sent  two  expeditions1  against  Greece,  both  of  which  proved 
miserable  failures.  Before  he  could  prepare  for  a  third  expedition,  he 
died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes.  Xerxes  was  at  first  inclined  to 
abandon  his  father's  plan  of  conquering  Greece,  but  was  finally  prevailed 
upon  to  take  up  this  work.  He  ordered  every  province  of  his  mighty 
empire  to  furnish  supplies  in  men  and  equipments,  from  Egypt  in  the 
west  to  India  in  the  east,  and  from  the  mountains  of  Armenia  and 
Kurdistan  to  the  Arabian  desert  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  Several  years 
were  spent  in  these  mighty  preparations.  In  the  spring  of  480  all  the 
contingents  were  to  meet  in  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor  and  prepare 
for  the  passage  into  Europe.  Perhaps  there  never  was  so  great  an  army 
or  concourse  of  people  under  one  command  before  or  since  in  the  whole 
history  of  the  world.  Some  have  estimated  that  there  were  in  all  men, 
women,  children,  soldiers,  sailors,  servants,  as  many  as  five  millions. 
These  figures  are  of  course  exaggerated.  Each  nation  had  its  own 
peculiar  uniform  and  weapons  of  warfare.  Xerxes  had  employed  skill- 
ful architects  to  connect  the  two  shores  of  the  Hellespont  by  a  bridge. 
But  no  sooner  was  the  work  finished  than  a  storm  arose  and  shattered 
the  whole  work.  When  Xerxes  heard  of  this  he  was  exceedingly  indig- 
nant and  commanded  that  the  sea  should  be  stricken  with  three  hundred 
lashes  with  a  scourge,  and  that  a  pair  of  fetters  should  be  let  down  into 
the  sea.    He  is  also  said  to  have  sent  some  instruments  to  brand  the 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


85 


sea.  He  charged  those  who  flogged  the  waters  to  exclaim  to  the  sea, 
"Thou  bitter  water,  thy  master  inflicts  this  punishment  upon  thee,  be- 
cause thou  hast  injured  him.  The  king  will  cross  over  thee  whether 
thou  will  or  not.  It  is  with  justice  that  no  man  sacrifices  to  thee  for 
thou  art  both  a  deceitful  and  briny  sea."  He  also  ordered  the  heads  of 
the  architects  and  builders  to  be  struck  off.  Other  engineers  were  then 
employed  to  bridge  the  strait  the  second  time. 

THE  CROSSING  OF  THE  HELLESPONT. 

Xerxes  had  ordered  a  lofty  throne  of  white  marble  to  be  erected  at 
Abydos,  which  he  ascended  to  view  his  immense  army  and  fleet  before 
crossing  over  into  Europe.  As  he  stood  there  surveying  the  countless 
hosts,  stretching  as  far  as  his  eyes  could  reach,  and  then  on  the  other 
hand  the  immense  fleet  covering  the  bosom  of  the  sea,  his  eyes  sparkled 
with  pride  and  satisfaction.  Suddenly  he  looked  over  the  strait  into 
Europe  and  his  eyes  filled  with  tears.  His  uncle,  Artabanus,  who  stood 
near  him,  asked  the  meaning  of  this  sudden  change  of  feeling,  and  the 
king  replied :  "When  I  saw  this  mighty  armament  and  all  these  thou- 
sands and  thousands  of  people  all  subject  to  my  smallest  wish,  I  was 
filled  with  exultation,  but  when  I  looked  over  to  the  other  side  of  the 
strait  and  reflected  how  short  this  glory  lasts  and  that  in  one  hundred 
years  not  one  of  these  shall  be  living,  my  heart  was  filled  with  pain  and 
sorrow  and  my  eyes  with  tears." 

They  now  made  preparations  for  the  passage.  The  next  morning, 
as  the  sun  rose,  they  burnt  all  manner  of  perfumes  and  strewed  the  road 
with  myrtle  branches.  Xerxes  poured  a  libation  from  a  golden  cup  into 
the  sea  and  offered  up  a  prayer  that  no  accidents  might  attend  him  and 
prevent  him  from  subduing  Europe.  He  then  threw  the  golden  cup  and 
a  golden  bowl  and  a  sword  into  the  sea,  perhaps  as  a  peace  offering,  hav- 
ing repented  that  he  had  cursed  and  scourged  the  sea  before. 

When  these  ceremonies  were  performed,  the  passage  across  the 
bridge  began.  This  passage  lasted  seven  days  and  seven  nights.  Xerxes 
is  said  to  have  crossed  over  last  of  all. 

AT  THERMOPYLAE. 

The  forces  collected  by  the  Greeks  to  oppose  this  immense  horde 
were  inexcusably  small.  A  mere  handful  of  men  under  the  heroic  Leon- 
idas  of  Sparta  were  stationed  at  the  pass  of  Thermopylae.  When  the 
intrepid  Leonidas  was  told  of  the  countless  numbers  of  the  enemy  and 
that  their  arrows  would  fly  so  thick  as  to  obscure  the  sun,  he  replied: 


86 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


"So  much  the  better,  we  can  then  fight  in  the  shade."  When  Xerxes  heard 
that  a  few  hundred  or  thousand  men  were  stationed  in  the  pass  to  op- 
pose his  passage,  he  regarded  them  as  madmen  who  would  come  to  their 
senses  when  they  beheld  the  immense  hosts  of  the  enemy.  He  sent 
orders  to  Leonidas  to  deliver  up  his  arms.  Leonidas,  in  Spartan  style, 
replied :  "Come  and  take  them." 

Xerxes  ordered  a  chosen  body  of  Medes  to  advance  against  the  pre- 
sumptuous foes  and  bring  them  into  his  presence.  The  Medes  fought 
bravely,  but  to  no  purpose.  After  the  battle  had  lasted  several  hours, 
resulting  in  heavy  losses  to  the  Persians,  Xerxes  sent  out  his  ten  thou- 
sand "Immortals."  But  they  were  no  more  successful  than  the  Medes. 
Xerxes  is  said  to  have  leaped  three  times  from  his  seat  on  a  lofty  throne 
when  he  beheld  the  repulse  of  his  troops  and  especially  of  his  "Im- 
mortals." 

The  attack  was  renewed  the  next  day,  but  with  no  better  success. 
The  king  was  beginning  to  despair  of  success  when  a  treacherous  Greek 
pointed  out  to  the  Persians  a  secret  path  across  the  mountains.  Most 
of  the  Greeks  now  abandoned  their  posts,  but  the  devoted  Spartans,  who 
must  never  desert  a  post,  and  a  few  of  the  others,  remained  and  were 
cut  down  to  a  man.  A  monument  was  raised  to  them,  bearing  the  in- 
scription : 

"Go  stranger.,  and  to  Lacedaemon  tell 
That  here,  obedient  to  her  laws,  we  fell." 

RETURN  OF  XERXES. 

Athens  was  soon  laid  in  ashes,  and  thus  the  wrongs  done  Darius 
were  avenged,  but  in  the  great  naval  battle  of  Salamis,  the  greater  part 
of  the  great  Persian  fleet  was  annihilated  and  Xerxes  in  great  fear  fled 
precipitately  from  Greece  across  the  Hellespont  into  Asia,  leaving  to  his 
general,  Mardonius,  the  task  of  reducing  the  rest  of  the  Greeks. 

In  the  great  battle  of  Plataea  the  following  year  the  rest  of  the 
Persian  army  was  defeated  and  utterly  routed,  and  thus  ended  the  great 
expedition  of  Xerxes,  which  had  cost  so  much  treasure  and  so  many 
lives.  Xerxes  returned  to  his  palace  and  never  again  attempted  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  Greeks.  He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  luxury  and 
idleness.  He  is,  in  all  probability,  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  Bible,  as  that 
is  the  Hebrew  name  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Xerxes.  His  character 
seems  to  accord  well  with  that  of  Ahasuerus. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


87 


DARIUS  AND  ALEXANDER. 

The  last  of  the  kings  of  the  old  Persian  Empire  was  Darius  Coda- 
manus.  He  was  one  of  the  best  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  un- 
fortunate of  Persian  kings.  He  had  the  misfortune  of  being  a  contem- 
porary of  Alexander  the  Great.  For  under  that  great  leader,  Europe 
was  to  return  the  visit  that  Asia  had  made  to  her  under  Darius  and 
Xerxes  nearly  two  centuries  before. 

What  a  contrast  between  the  crossing  of  the  Hellespont  by  Xerxes 
and  Alexander  the  Great ;  and  what  a  contrast  between  the  results  of  the 
two  crossings.  Alexander  crossed  with  only  a  few  thousand  cavalry 
and  thirty-five  thousand  foot  soldiers.  He  quickly  reduced  all  Asia  Minor 
and  then  met  and  utterly  routed  Darius  in  the  celebrated  battle  of  Issus 
(333  B.  C).  Darius  fled,  leaving  his  mother,  his  wife,  two  daughters,  and 
a  little  son  as  captives  in  the  hands  of  Alexander. 

That  evening,  as  Alexander  was  dining  with  his  friends,  a  loud  cry, 
a  lamentation  was  heard  from  the  tent  of  the  captive  queens  and 
princesses.  Upon  inquiry  Alexander  learned  that  the  captives  had  received 
the  royal  mantle  which  Darius  had  thrown  off  in  his  hurried  flight,  and 
supposing  that  the  king  had  been  slain,  they  gave  expression  to  their 
great  sorrow  and  distress.  Alexander  sent  them  the  comforting  assur- 
ance that  Darius  had  escaped  unhurt,  and  the  following  day,  in  com- 
pany with  his  most  intimate  friend,  Hephaestion,  he  made  a  visit  to  the 
royal  captives.  Sysigambis,  the  mother  of  Darius,  arose  and  bowed 
herself  before  Hephaestion,  thinking  he  was  Alexander  as  he  was  taller 
and  looked  more  like  a  king  than  Alexander.  Being  informed  of  her 
mistake,  she  feared  greatly,  thinking  that  she  had  mortally  offended 
the  king,  and  tried  to  atone  for  her  error.  But  Alexander  comforted  her, 
saying:  "My  good  mother,  you  were  not  mistaken,  for  Hephaestion  is 
also  an  Alexander."  He  then  told  the  queen-mother  that  she  could 
select  as  many  of  the  noble  Persian  dead  as  she  desired  and  have  them 
buried  in  Persian  style  at  his  expense.  The  good  woman  could  not  find 
words  to  express  her  surprise  at  his  magnanimity  nor  her  gratitude  for 
his  kindness.  She  availed  herself  of  his  offer  very  sparingly,  for  she  did 
not  wisli  to  impose  upon  his  liberality. 

ALEXANDER  IN  JERUSALEM. 

While  Alexander  was  besieging  Tyre  he  sent  to  the  Samaritans 
and  the  Jews  demanding  them  to  surrender  to  him  and  to  send  him 
supplies.  The  Samaritans  complied  with  this  order,  but  the  Jews  replied 
that  they  had  taken  an  oath  of  fealty  to  the  Persian  king  and  would 


88 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


remain  faithful  to  their  oath.  After  the  fall  of  Tyre,  Alexander  >et  out 
for  Jerusalem  to  punish  the  insolence  of  the  Jews,  as  thoroughly  as  he 
had  punished  the  Tyrians. 

In  this  imminent  danger,  Jaddus,  the  high  priest,  sought  the  Lord, 
and  gave  orders  for  the  offering  up  of  public  prayers  for  safety  and  pro- 
tection. In  the  night  he  was  directed  in  a  vision  to  strew  the  city  with 
flowers,  to  set  open  all  the  gates,  and  go  clothed  in  his  pontificial  robes, 
with  all  the  priests  dressed  in  their  vestments,  and  all  the  people  clothed 
in  white  to  meet  Alexander.   This  direction  was  punctually  obeyed. 

The  neighboring  peoples  expected  that  the  wrath  of  Alexander  was 
so  great  that  he  would  certainly  punish  the  insolent  high-priest  and 
destroy  the  city  of  Jerusalem  as  he  had  done  with  Tyre.  Flushed  with 
joy  on  that  account,  they  waited  in  expectation  of  feasting  their  eyes 
upon  the  calamity  of  a  people  to  whom  they  bore  a  mortal  hatred. 

When  the  Jews  heard  of  the  approach  of  Alexander,  they  marched 
out  in  solemn  procession  to  meet  him,  led  by  their  high-priest.  As 
Alexander  approached,  he  was  struck  with  the  appearance  of  the  high- 
priest,  on  whose  mitre  and  forehead  a  golden  plate  was  fixed,  bearing 
the  name  of  God  upon  it.  As  soon  as  the  king  saw  the  high-priest  he 
advanced  to  meet  him  with  every  mark  of  respect,  bowed  his  body,  and 
adored  the  God  whose  name  he  saw,  and  saluted  him  who  wore  it  with 
religious  veneration.  The  Jews  surrounded  Alexander,  raised  their 
voices  into  a  great  shout  and  wished  him  every  kind  of  prosperity.  All 
spectators  were  seized  with  inexpressible  surprise.  Parmenio  recovered 
himself  from  the  astonishment  and  asked  why  he,  whom  everybody 
adored  should  adore  the  high-priest  of  the  Jews.  But  Alexander  re- 
plied :  "I  do  not  adore  the  high-priest,  but  the  God  whose  minister  he 
is ;  for  while  I  was  at  Dia,  in  Macedonia,  my  mind  wholly  fixed  upon 
the  designs  of  the  Persian  war,  as  I  was  reflecting  upon  the  means  of 
conquering  Asia,  this  very  man,  dressed  in  the  same  robes,  appeared 
to  me  in  a  dream,  exhorted  me  to  banish  every  fear,  bid  me  cross  the 
Hellespont  boldly,  and  assured  me  that  God  would  march  at  the  head 
of  my  army  and  give  me  the  victory  over  that  of  the  Persians." 

Josephus  adds  that  the  high-priest  conducted  the  king  into  Jeru- 
salem and  showed  him  the  book  of  Daniel  and  the  prophecy  in  which 
Daniel  declares  that  a  Greek  should  destroy  the  empire  of  the  Persians. 
Alexander  was  greatly  pleased,  and  on  the  following  day  bade  the  Jews 
ask  what  favors  they  pleased  of  him.  The  high-priest  desired  that  they 
might  enjoy  the  laws  of  their  fathers,  and  might  pay  no  tribute  on  the 
seventh  year.  He  granted  them  all  they  desired.  He  also  granted  the 
same  privileges  to  the  Jews  in  Babylon  and  Media- 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


89 


THE  DEATH  OF  DARIUS'  WIFE. 

After  Alexander  had  conquered  Egypt  and  set  out  upon  his  march 
for  new  conquests  in  Persia,  news  was  brought  him  that  the  wife  of 
Darius  had  died.  He  went  at  once  to  the  tent  of  mourning.  He  found 
!  the  queen-mother  and  the  two  young  daughters  bathed  in  tears.  He 
consoled  them  in  so  kind  and  gentle  a  manner  as  to  show  that  he  himself 
was  deeply  afflicted.  He  caused  the  funeral  obsequies  to  be  performed 
with  the -utmost  splendor. 

The  news  of  this  death  was  carried  to  Darius  by  a  eunuch,  who 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape.  Darius  was  deeply  afflicted  by  this 
sad  news,  and  especially  as  the  queen  could  not  receive  the  funeral  rites 
befitting  her  rank.  But  when  he  was  informed  that  the  funeral  had  been 
performed  with  all  possible  magnificence,  and  when  he  learned  of  all  the 
kindness  of  Alexander,  he  is  said  to  have  lifted  his  hands  to  heaven  and 
offered  the  following  prayer :  "Ye  gods,  who  preside  over  the  birth  of 
men  and  who  dispose  of  kings  and  empires,  grant  that,  after  having 
raised  the  fortunes  of  Persia  from  its  dejected  state,  I  may  transmit  it  to 
my  descendants  with  the  same  lustre  in  which  I  received  it,  in  order  that, 
after  having  triumphed  over  my  enemies,  I  may  acknowledge  the  favors 
which  Alexander  has  shown  in  my  calamity  to  persons  who  are  most 
dear  to  me;  or,  if  the  time  ordained  by  the  fates  has  at  last  come,  or 
it  must  necessarily  happen,  from  the  anger  of  the  gods,  or  the  ordinary 
vicissitudes  of  human  affairs,  that  the  Empire  of  Persia  must  end ;  grant 
that  none  but  Alexander  may  ascend  the  throne  of  Cyrus." 

THE  DEATH  OF  DARIUS. 

Another  great  battle  followed  on  the  plains  of  Arbela,  east  of  the 
Tigeis.  Darius  was  again  put  to  rout  and  fled  with  a  part  of  his  army 
into  the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia.  Alexander  marched  down  into 
the  heart  of  old  Persia  and  left  his  captives  at  Susa,  their  old  home,  where 
they  were  no  longer  captives. 

After  organizing  the  government  and  appointing  governors,  he 
once  more  set  out  in  pursuit  of  Darius.  By  this  time,  Darius  was  him- 
self a  captive  in  the  hands  of  one  of  his  generals  who  had  rebelled  against 
bim.  Bessus,  the  traitor  general,  was  pursued  by  Alexander  into  Hyr- 
cania.  Here  Darius  refused  to  follow  any  further.  He  would  rather 
fall  into  the  hands  of  Alexander.  He  was  accordingly  dispatched  by  the 
traitors  and  left  covered  with  wounds. 

A  Macedonian  soldier  coming  up,  found  the  dying  king,  who  had 
still  strength  enough  to  ask  for  water.    It  was  at  once  brought  him. 


90 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Somewhat  revived  by  the  drink,  he  was  able  to  speak.  He  felt  happy 
to  know  there  was  some  one  near  him  who  could  understand  him  and 
receive  his  dying  words.  He  died  in  Alexander's  debt,  and  sent  him 
a  multitude  of  thanks  for  all  the  kindness  he  had  shown  his  mother,  his 
wife  and  children,  whose  lives  he  had  not  only  spared,  but  restored  to 
their  former  splendor.  He  prayed  that  Alexander  might  be  victorious 
and  become  the  monarch  of  the  whole  world.  "Give  him  thy  hand,"  he 
said  to  the  Macedonian,  "as  I  give  thee  mine,  and  carry  him  in  my  name 
the  only  pledge  I  am  able  to  give  of  my  gratitude  and  affection."  Hav- 
ing said  this  he  breathed  his  last. 

Alexander  came  up  a  few  minutes  afterwards,  and  seeing  the  pros- 
trate body  of  the  king,  he  shed  generous  tears  over  his  fallen  foe.  He 
ordered  the  body  to  be  embalmed  and  sent  it  to  Sysigambis  in  order  that 
it  might  be  interred  with  the  honors  due  to  deceased  kings  of  Persia, 
and  be  entombed  with  his  ancestors. 

ALEXANDER  AT  BABYLON. 

After  his  conquest  of  all  the  eastern  lands  up  to  and  including 
northwestern  India,  Alexander  came  to  Babylon  and  established  his 
capital  there.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Darius  and  encouraged  in 
every  way  the  fusion  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Persians. 

But  in  the  midst  of  his  busy  life,  in  the  midst  of  his  improvements, 
and  new  plans  for  conquest,  he  suddenly  died,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty- 
three  and  his  kingdom  was  soon  divided.  The  eastern  half,  including 
Persia  proper,  soon  fell  under  the  Parthians  who  ruled  it  until  the  third 
century  of  our  era. 

CHOSROES  II. 

The  new  Persian  Empire  was  established  by  Ardashir,  or  Arta- 
xerxes,  who  claimed  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  ancient  royal  family  of 
Persia.  It  was  against  these  princes  of  the  Sassanidae  dynasty  that  the 
old  emperors  of  Rome  and  Constantinople  were  constantly  warring. 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  rulers  was  perhaps  Chosroes  II.  who 
wrested  from  the  Emperor  of  Constantinople  province  after  province, 
captured  Antioch  and  Jerusalem,  and  carried  off  from  the  latter  place 
the  fragments  of  the  true  cross  which  the  mother  of  Constantine  had 
found  and  placed  in  the  church  of  Jerusalem.  Chosroes  also  reduced 
Asia  Minor  and  established  his  camp  within  sight  of  Constantinople 
itself.  '  i  I 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


91 


After  these  conquests  he  retired  for  a  time  to  enjoy  the  luxuries  of 
his  palace  at  Dastagerd,  beyond  the  Tigris.  "Six  thousand  guards  suc- 
;essively  mounted  before  the  palace  gate ;  the  service  of  the  interior  apart- 
nents  was  performed  by  twelve  thousand  slaves  and  the  various  treasures 
of  gold,  silver,  gems,  silk  and  aumastics  were  deposited  in  a  hundred 
subterraneous  vaults.  The  voice  of  flattery,  and  perhaps  of  fiction,  is 
not  ashamed  to  compute  the  30,000  rich  hangings  that  adorned  the  walls ; 
the  40,000  columns  of  silver,  or  more  probably  of  marble  and  plated 
wood,  that  supported  the  roof;  and  the  1,000  globes  of  gold  suspended 
in  the  dome,  to  imitate  the  motions  of  the  planets  and  the  constella- 
tions of  the  Zodiac. 

"While  the  Persian  monarch  contemplated  the  wonders  of  his  art 
and  power,  he  received  an  epistle  from  an  obscure  citizen  of  Mecca,  in- 
viting him  to  acknowledge  Mohammed  as  the  prophet  of  God.  He  re- 
jected the  invitation  and  tore  the  epistle.-  "It  is  thus,"  exclaimed  the 
Arabian  prophet,  "that  God  will  tear  the  kingdom  and  reject  the  sup- 
plications of  Chosroes."  (Gibbon). 

The  predictions  of  Mohammed  were  soon  fulfilled.  Heraclius,  the 
Emperor  of  Constantinople,  suddenly  roused  himself,  and  in  three  glori- 
ous campaigns  regained  all  the  provinces  which  he  had  lost  during  the 
early  part  of  his  reign.  And  shortly  after  the  death  of  Mohammed  all 
Persia  was  overrun  by  the  forces  of  the  Caliphs  and  from  that  time  to 
this  the  rulers  of  Persia  have  been  followers  of  the  prophet  of  Mecca. 

In  632  the  Mohammedans  conquered  Persia  and  abolished  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Fire-Worshipers  by  the  sword  establishing  Mohammedan- 
ism in  its  stead. 

Three  hundred  and  thirty  B.  C,  is  included  in  the  next  great 
Asiatic  kingdom  of  Syria ;  till  the  revolt  of  Arsaces,  250  B.  C,  and  in- 
cluded in  the  Parthian  Empire  till  Artaxerxes  I.,  founders  of  the  Sass- 
anides  dynasty,  restored  the  kingdom  of  Persia  and  the  religion  of  Zo-  . 
roaster.  226  A.  D.,  is  added  to  the  Saracen  Empire  and  Mohammedan- 
ized  by  Usman  the  3rd  Caliph.  632  A.  D.  (the  king  being  put  to  death 
and  his  army  exterminated),  is  subdued  by  Togrul  Beg  and  the  Selju- 
kian  Turks  1038,  who  are  expelled  in  1194.  Subdued  by  Zengis  Khan 
and  the  Moguls  1223,  Bagdad  made  the  capital  1345.  Is  invaded  by 
Timour  (Tamerlane),  1380,  ravaged  by  him  1399.  Conquered  by  the 
Turkomans  1468,  who  were  expelled  by  the  Shuites  or  Fatimite  Moham- 
medans, who  established  the  Lopfic  dynasty  under  Ismael  I.  A.  D.,  1501, 
(Theran  made  the  capital  in  1796),  which  continues  an  independent  but 
feeble  kingdom  tQ  this  day.    Population  estimated  at  ten  millions. 


92 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


A  new  dynasty  arose  in  western  Persia  in  1,500  A.  D.  Ismael,  the 
descendant  of  an  ancient  family  of  devotees  and  saints,  became  the 
leader  of  a  number  of  tribes  which  united  under  him,  and  with  the  aid  of 
which  he  overturned  the  rule  of  the  Turkoman  and  made  Aderbjon  his 
capital.  His  followers  held  him  in  the  highest  esteem  on  account  of  his 
personal  valor  and  owing  to  the  high  rank  of  his  family  revered  him. 
He  rapidly  subdued  western  Persia,  and  in  151 1  took  Khorasan  and 
Balkh  from  the  Uzbecks.  In  15 14  he  encountered  a  far  more  formidable 
enemy  in  the  mighty  Salim,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  whose  zeal  for  the  con- 
quest was  fanned  by  religious  fanaticism  having  developed  into  hatred 
against  the  Shuites,  the  followers  of  Ismael  largely  adhering  to  this 
sect,  and  who  in  turn  were  fiercely  inflamed  against  the  Sunnites,  the  sub- 
jects and  followers  of  the  Sultan.  In  the  ensuing  conflict  Ismael  was 
defeated,  but  Salim  could  not  record  any  great  gain  from  this  victory. 
Ismael's  son,  Shah  Tah-Masip,  who  reigned  from  1523  to  1576,  subdued 
all  the  Uzbecks  of  Khorasan  and  frequently  defeated  the  Turks  without 
suffering  the  loss  of  a  single  battle.  He  takes  rank  as  a  prudent  and 
spirited  ruler. 

Shah,  Abbas  I,  the  Great,  who  was  one  of  the  most  glorious  of  Per- 
sia's modern  kings,  ascended  the  throne  in  1585  and  ruler  until  1628.  He 
restored  internal  tranquillity  and  repelled  the  invasion  of  the  Uzbecks  and 
Turks.  In  the  year  1605  he  gave  the  Turks  such  a  terrific  drubbing  that 
they  made  no  more  trouble  during  his  long  reign.  He  also  restored  to 
his  kingdom  Kurdistan  Mosul  and  Drarbekin,  which  had  long  been 
separated  from  Persia.  Abbas'  government  was  strict,  but  just  and 
equitable.  Roads,  bridges,  caravansaries*  and  other  conveniences  for 
trade  were  constructed  at  great  cost,  and  the  improvement  and  ornament- 
ation of  the  towns  were  not  neglected.  Many  of  his  large  caravansaries 
which  bear  his  name  remain  to  this  Hay. 

Isphahan,  his  capital,  in  a  brief  period  of  his  reign,  doubled  its 
population.  His  tolerance  was  remarkable,  considering  the  character 
of  his  ancestors  and  subjects,  for  he  encouraged  the  Armenian  Christ- 

*King  Abbas  ordered  one  of  his  officers  to  construct  1,000  cara- 
vansaries, the  cost  of  construction  to  be  paid  for  from  the  kings  treasury. 
The  officer  built  only  999,  and  when  the  king  inquired  if  he  had  finished 
his  task,  he  replied  that  he  had  built  one  less.  This  made  the  king  very 
angry  and  he  ordered  the  officer  to  be  beheaded.  The  officer  requested 
the  privilege  to  speak,  which  the  king  granted.  Then  the  officer  said : 
"Long  live  the  king!  I  did  this  for  the  honor  of  the  king,  because  it 
would  take  the  people  longer  to  say  999  than  1,000."  This  pleased  the 
king  so  that  he  spared  the  officer's  life  and  gave  him  a  high  office. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  fiABlTS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE.  93 

ians  to  settle  in  the  country,  well  knowing  that  their  peaceable,  industri- 
ous habits  would  enhance  the  prosperity  of  his  kingdom. 

His  successors  were  Shah  Sufi  (1628-41)  Shah  Abbas  II  (1641-66), 
and  Shah  Soliman  (1666-94).  During  the  reign  of  Shah  Sultan  Hus- 
sein (1694-1722)  a  weak  and  foolish  prince,  priests  and  slaves  were  ele- 
vated to  high  offices  and  the  Sunnites  suffered  sore  persecution.  The 
result  was  that  Afghan  besieged  the  king  in  Isphahan,  Hussein  abdicated 
in  favor  of  his  conqueror,  who  ultimately  became  insane  and  suffered 
deposition  in  1725  at  the  hands  of  his  brother  Ashrab. 

The  atrocious  tyranny  of  Ashrab  was  suddenly  checked  by  the  cele- 
brated Nadir-Shah.  Hussein  and  Ashrab  belonged  to  the  dynasty  of 
Sayides,  a  holy  sect,  descendants  of  their  prophet  Mohammed. 

Nadir-Shah  was  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of  Persia.  He  raised 
Tah-Masip  (1729-32)  and  his  son,  Abbas  III  (1732-36),  of  the  Suffi- 
vian  race,  to  the  throne,  and  then  on  some  frivolous  pretext  deposed 
Abbas  III  and  seized  the  scepter  himself  (1736-47).  Nadir  was  assassin- 
ated by  Imam-Kuli-Khan,  of  Oroomiah,  whose  descendants  now  live 
very  near  our  mission  station  in  Oroomiah.  Again  after  the  murder  of 
Nadir,  Persia  was  divided  into  many  independent  states  and  became  a 
field  of  blood.  Beloochistan  and  Afghanistan  became  independent  till 
1755,  when  a  Kurd,  Karim  Khan  (1755-79)  abolished  this  state  of  affairs, 
re-established  peace  and  unity  in  western  Persia,  and  by  his  justice, 
wisdom  and  warlike  talents  acquired  both  the  esteem  of  his  subjects  and 
the  respect  of  the  neighboring  states.  He  received  the  title.,  "Father  of 
Persia."  Karim  Khan  was  succeeded  in  1784  by  Al  Murad,  then  by 
Jaafor  and  the  latter  by  Lutf-Ali  Merza. 

During  Lutf-Ali's  reign  Mazandaran  became  independent  under 
Agha  Mohammed  Khan,  a  Turkoman.  Lutf-Ali  Merza  rushed  into 
Mazandaran  and  killed  all  the  relations  of  Mohammed_  Khan  who  were 
ruling  there  and  took  captive  Agha  Mohammed  Khan,  a  boy  only  six 
years  old,  making  him  a  eunuch. 

This  boy  was  of  the  Kajar  race.  When  he  was  in  the  hartm  ot 
Lutf-Ali,  he  kept  thinking  how  his  cruel  master  murdered  his  father  and 
all  his  relatives.  When  he  sat  on  the  royal  rugs,  he  would  take  his  re- 
venge by  cutting  them.  When  of  age,  20  or  25  years  old,  he  eloped 
to  his  own  country,  Mazandaran,  and  joined  his  relations.  He 
frequently  attacked  Lutf-Ali,  and  defeated  him  in  1795.  He 
was  then  able  to  establish  his  throne  in  the  southern  part  of 
Mazandaran.  This  great  eunuch  king  founded  the  dynasty  which  rules 
today,  restored  the  kingdom  as  it  was  under  Karim-Kurd,  and  con- 


94 


querer  Georgia  and  Khorasan.  But  he  was  assassinated  May  14,  1797. 
His  nephew,  Futteli-Ali  Shah  (1797-1834)  engaged  in  three  wars  with 
Russia  and  was  defeated  each  time.  As  a  result  he  lost  his  territory  in 
Armenia  and  a  part  of  Persia — namely,  from  the  Caucasian  Mountains 
to  the  River  Aras,  which  now  fixed  the  boundary  between  Russia  and 
Persia. 

Futteli-Ali,  in  his  last  war  with  Russia,  in  1826,  was  entirely  de- 
feated. Besides  losing  some  of  his  territory,  he  paid  the  sum  of  18,000,- 
000  rubles  ($9,000,000)  to  Russia.  The  death  of  the  Crown  Prince  Abbas 
Mirza  (1833)  seemed  to  give  final  blow  to  the  declining  fortune  of  Per- 
sia, as  he  was  the  only  man  who  seriously  attempted  to  raise  his  country 
from  the  state  of  abasement  into  which  it  had  fallen. 


NASREDDIN  SHAH  MEETING  QUEEN  VICTORIA  IN  1889. 


Futteli-Ali  had  seven  sons.  One  of  them,  Jahon-Suz-Mirza,  lives 
today.  Seven  years  ago  he  was  governor  in  the  author's  city. 
After  the  death  of  the  Crown  Prince,  each  of  the  seven  sons 
laid  claim  to  the  throne,  while  the  father  was  still  living.  At  the  same 
time  the  Crown  Prince  Abbas-Mirza  had  a  son  named  Mohammed.  Fut- 
teli-Ali, when  quite  old  and  near  death,  by  the  aid  of  Russia,  made  Mo- 
hammed, his  grandson,  king  (1834-1848). 

Nayib-Ali-Saltana  acted  as  regent  during  the  boyhood  of  Moham- 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


i>5 


med.  When  he  came  to  power  for  himself,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  re- 
storing Baluchistan,  Afghanistan,  and  a  great  part  of  Turkoman,  to  the 
Persian  dominion.  He  was  especially  anxious  to  take  Herat,  the  key 
to  India,  but  was  resisted  by  England.  The  war  was  terminated  in 
1838. 

Nasreddin  (defender  of  his  religion),  the  late  Shah  (who  was  assassin- 
ated May  1,  1896),  a  young  man  18  years  old  and  very  energetic,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1848.  Following  his  father's  example,  the  new 
Shah  tried  to  restore  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan,  but  was  compelled 
by  England  to  sign  an  agreement  on  January  25,  1858,  by  which  he  was 
bound  not  to  interfere  any  longer  in  the  internal  affairs  of  Herat. 

In  1858,  he  violated  this  treaty,  and  took  the  city  of  Herat.  After  a 
severe  war  with  England,  in  1857,  in  which  his  loss  was  20,000  soldiers, 
relinquished  Herat,  but  added  to  Persia  many  provinces  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Afghanistan  and  Baluchistan,  and  also  some  states  in  Turko- 
man. 

-<  He  was  one  of  the  best  kings  of  Persia.  He  visited  Europe  three 
times ;  once  in  1873.  He  had  European  ideas  and  was  a  well  educated 
man.  He  started  a  good  system  of  postal  telegraph  and  had  30,000 
soldiers  trained  after  European  discipline.  Above  all  he  founded  a 
beautiful  college  in  Teheran,  which  is  called  in  Persian,  Daralfnoon  (the 
place  of  science).  The  present  Shah,  Mozuffur-uddine,  was  born  March 
25,  1853,  and  succeeded  his  father  on  May  1,  1896. 

Persia  is  divided  into  thirteen  states :  Ghilon,  Mazandaron,  Astara- 
bad,  in  the  north;  Aderbjon,  Persian  Kurdistan,  Luriston,  Kerman  with 
Mogiston  in  the  south ;  Irakeston,  the  capital  state,  where  the  king  re- 
sides, being  in  the  center.  On  the  east  lies  the  large  estate  of  Khorasan, 
which  is  mainly  a  desert. 

The  largest  city  is  Tabriz,  has  about  200,000  inhabitants,  and  is  also 
the  most  important  commercial  city. 

The  present  population  of  Persia  is  about  10,000,000,  composed  of 
representatives  of  various  nations.  Each  speaks  its  own  language  and 
uses  its  own  national  costume.  There  are  about  30,000  Jews,  60,000 
Armenians,  75,000  Nestorians,  675,000  Kurds,  15,000  Fire:worshipers, 
and  the  remainder  are  Mohammedans. 

The  Shah  is  regarded  as  the  agent  of  Mohammed,  and  as  such 
demands  implicit  obedience.  The  government  is,  therefore,  an  absolute 
despotism.  The  Shah  appoints  a  governor  for  each  state ;  this  governor 
appoints  a  mayor  in  each  city  within  his  territory.  This  office  is  not 
awarded  on  the  basis  of  education,  ability  or  worthiness,  but  is  given  to 


SB 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  man  who  will  pay  the  most  money,  provided  his  ancestry  is  fairly 
good.  Many  mayors  of  cities  are  related  to  the  royal  family.  These 
offices  are  limited  to  terms  of  one  year,  but  many  times  a  mayor  is  re- 
moved before  his  time  expires,  subjects  complaining  loudly  against  him, 
or  some  person  bidding  more  money  for  the  office.  When  a  man  is 
appointed  mayor  of  a  city,  the  lords  and  counts  of  that  city,  accom- 
panied by  soldiers,  will  go  three  miles  to  meet  the  new  official.  He  is 
greeted  with  discharges  of  artillery. 

These  lords  ride  on  very  fine  Arabian  horses  with  gold-bitted  bridles 
and  escort  the  mayor  into  the  city.  The  new  governor  admires  the  fine 
horses  of  his  lords,  occasionally  covets  some  fine  steed  among  them, 
and  before  his  term  expires  finds  a  way  to  get  possession  of  it  by  helping 
the  lord  out  of  some  trouble. 

If  the  new  mayor  is  a  prince,  all  prisoners  confined  in  the  city  jails 
are  taken  out  before  him  as  he  enters  the  city.  This  is  to  signify  that 
as  a  member  of  the  royal  family  he  has  authority  to  behead  them. 

The  third  day  after  the  new  mayor  has  arrived  in  a  city  it  is  custom- 
ary for  lords  and  counts  to  visit  him  with  presents  of  money,  golden 
trinkets,  Arabian  horses,  etc.  A  mayor  has  from  one  hundred  to  three 
hundred  servants.  He  pays  them  no  salary.  Some  willingly  enter  his 
service  for  the  name,  some  from  fear,  and  others  from  choice.  Most  of 
these  servants  obtain  a  living  from  fines  and  bribes.  Some  of  them 
are  detailed  to  settle  quarrels  between  men  in  some  village  that  belongs 
to  the  city.  This  is  their  opportunity  and  they  early  learn  to  make  the 
most  of  it. 

Each  officer  is  at  the  mercy  of  the  highest  officer  who  may  take  away 
his  office  or  cause  him  to  be  executed  at  any  time,  without  any  trial,  in 
any  cruel  manner  he  may  desire. 

TEHERAN. 

Teheran,  the  capital  of  Persia,  is  called  the  "City  of  the  Shadow  of 
God,"  the  "Footstool  of  the  King  of  Kings."  It  has  no  glorious  past  to 
boast  of.  Though  the  neighboring  plains  contain  mounds  and  ruins  of 
great  cities,  it  was  only  in  the  latter  part  of  the  past  century  that  Teheran 
emerged  from  obscurity.  The  first  records  describe  it  as  a  village  of  un- 
derground hovels,  affording  a  retreat  from  the  summer  heat  or  from  the 
ravages  of  plundering  hordes.  She  was  chosen  as  the  capital  of  Aga 
Mohammed  Khan,  the  founder  of  the  present  Kajar  dynasty.  His  pref- 
erence for  it  was  undoubtedly  owing  to  its  proximity  to  his  own  tribe  in 
Mezandaran.    Now,  Teheran  has  assumed  the  position  of  the  political 


Manners,  customs,  habits  and  social  Lim 


center  of  central  Asia.  Here  the  legations  of  England,  France,  Russia, 
Germany,  Austria,  Holland,  Turkey  and  the  United  States  represent  their 
respective  countries  and  spin  the  webs  of  their  political  intrigues. 

In  a  century  Teheran's  population  has  increased  from  15,000  to  200,- 
000  inhabitants.  Owing  to  its  modern  growth,  it  has  also  partaken  of  a 
European  element  more  than  any  other  Persian  city,  and  is  more  influ- 
enced by  western  ideas.  The  old  style  is  yet  noticeable  in  the  high  walls 
and  deep  moat  surrounding  the  entire  city.  On  each  side  of  it  are  two 
large,  well  built  and  handsomely  ornamented  gates.  On  the  other  hand, 
broad  avenues,  well  paved  and  bordered  by  shade  trees,  houses  of  mod- 
ern architecture,  embassy  grounds,  laid  out  after  the  pattern  of  an  Eng- 
lish park,  phaetons  and  carriages,  telegraph  poles,  tramways,  gas  and 
electric  lights  in  the  streets,  drug  stores,  photograph  galleries,  strongly 
attest  that  western  life  has  invigorated  the  stereotyped  east.  The  bazaars 
also,  while  presenting  the  same  general  characteristics  as  in  other  cities, 
have  wider  aisles,  and  enjoy  more  of  the  much-needed  sunlight.  They 
are  well  stocked  with  imports,  and  those*which  deal  in  European  goods 
attract  the  briskest  trade. 

The  royal  palace  is  surrounded  by  high  stone  walls.  Four  beautiful 
gates  afford  entrance  to  the  grounds.  On  the  sides  of  and  above  the 
gates  the  walls  are  adorned  with  the  pictures  of  former  kings  and  brave 
generals,  and  skillfully  carved  with  lions'  heads,  the  standards  of  Persia, 
and  birds.  The  park-like  grounds  are  beautifully  arranged  and  kept ;  all 
the  drives  and  walks  lead  to  the  Shah's  palace,  situated  in  the  center, 
and  are  gorgeously  ornamented  with  decorative  trees  and  hedges  of 
roses  of  varied  hues.  Numerous  officers  of  superior  rank  guard  the 
entrances  and  the  walks  and  avenues  that  lead  to  the  palace,  those  near- 
est to  it  ever  standing  with  drawn  sword.  While  hearing  a  case  or  passing 
judgment  the  king  sits  on  his  "peacock  throne,"  surrounded  by  his  cab- 
inet, consisting  of  six  advisers.  His  decisions,  however,  are  absolute  and 
may  at  any  time  overrule  the  opinion  of  his  cabinet.  This  body  forms 
the  legislature  of  the  country.  The  members  of  it  are  appointed  by  the 
Shah,  the  people  having  no" voice  whatever  in  governmental  affairs. 
Whenever  the  Shah  feels  tired  his  secretary  reads  to  him  from  the  "Sana- 
meh,"  a  poetical  history  of  Persian  kings.  It  is  one  of  the  Shah's 
duties  to  make  himself  thoroughly  acquainted  with  Persian  history  and 
the  history  of  her  former  rulers.  On  retiring  at  night  the  entrance  to 
the  Shah's  private  room  is  guarded  by  two  trustworthy  officers  with 
unsheathed  swords.  One  of  the  four  gates  in  the  wall  around  the  palace 
is  called  the  Shah's  gate,  as  he  always  enters  through  it.    No  other  per- 


98 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


9& 


son,  be  he  lord,  count  or  high  official,  is  permitted  to  pass  through  this 
gate  on  horseback  or  in  a  vehicle.   He  must  dismount  and  walk  through. 

When  the  Shah  goes  from  the  palace  for  a  chase  or  on  a  vacation,  he 
is  escorted  by  a  large  retinue,  headed  by  about  thirty  footmen,  each  bear- 
ing a  golden  staff  and  shouting:  "Disperse,  disperse!"  Hereupon  the 
passage  is  immediately  cleared  so  that  the  royal  cavalcade  may  pass  un- 
molested. The  footmen  are  followed  by  about  fifty  men  on  horseback, 
with  drawn  swords;  next  come  ten  or  twelve  riderless  Arabian  steeds 
dancing  along,  beauties  of  their  race,  adorned  with  bridles  of  gold 
studded  with  precious  stones. 

The  Shah  of  Persia  is  in  possession  of  the  greatest  and  most  valuable 
collection  of  jewels  on  the  globe.  .These  mav  be  inspected  in  his  palace, 
where  they  are  heaped  up  in  glass*  cases  like  tea  or  rice.  His  "peacock 
throne,"  which  was  brought  from  Delhi,  India,  by  King  Nadrisha,  who 
captured  that  city  about  200  years  ago,  has  been  estimated  at  $12,500,000 
some  years  ago,  and  has  risen  in  value  since  then.  It  is  made  of  solid 
gold  inlaid  with  diamonds,  pearls  and  other  jewels.  The  rug  upon  which 
the  Shah  prays  is  valued  at  $2,500,000.  He  has  a  tobacco  pipe  worth 
$500,000.  His  table  is  furnished  with  all  the  luxuries  and  good  things 
in  the  land.  There  will  be  perhaps  fifty  or  more  different  dishes  served 
at  one  meal.  When  the  Shah  sits  down  to  partake  of  some  food  he  will 
glance  over  all  these,  but  only  touch  or  nibble  from  one  or  the  other 
food,  yet  all  the  different  courses  must  be  prepared.  From  the  time  of 
the  purchase  until  it  appears  upon  the  table,  all  food  and  drink  is  ex- 
amined by  two  trustworthy  inspectors,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  the 
ruler  is  not  poisoned.  Again  the  food  is  inspected  by  the  Shah's  physi- 
cian before  eating  a  meal. 

Teheran,  the  present  capital  of  Persia,  owes  its  importance  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  made  the  seat  of  government  by  Shah  Aga  Mohammed 
Khan,  the  founder  of  the  reigning  dynasty  of  the  Khajars  a  hundred 
years  ago.  It  is  situated  on  the  great  central  plateau  of  Persia,  thirty- 
eight  hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  # 

The  spring  and  autumn  are  extremely  delightful;  in  summer  the 
heat  in  the  city  ranges  from  95  to  no  degrees  in  the  shade,  but  it  is 
endurable  because  of  its  dryness,  provided  caution  is  exercised  against 
direct  exposure  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

The  Shimran,  or  Shim  Iran  is  a  part  of  the  great  Elburz  chain  which 
extends  from  the  Caucasus  to  New  Shimran,  means  the  "Light  of  Per- 
sia." Gradually  ascending  from  the  walls  of  Teheran,  the  range  at  the 
distance  of  only  ten  miles  springs  with  sudden  precipitateness  to  the 


100 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


enormous  height  of  thirteen  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  During  the 
entire  summer  snow  is  seen  on  the  higher  peaks,  while  in  winter  they 
are  clothed  with  a  dense  mantle  of  ermine  to  the  plains.  Nothing  more 
magnificent  in  mountain  scenery  could  be  imagined.  From  every  part 
of  the  city  the  glittering  ridge  of  the  Shimran  is  to  be  seen  above  the 
housetops, — a  commanding  shape  forming  a  sublime  background  for  the 
avenues  leading  north  and  south. 

Twenty  miles  from  Teheran  is  the  mighty  peak  of  Demavend.  The 
height  of  Demavend  has  been  variously  estimated  by  barometrical  pres- 
sure. The  most  recent  and  reliable  calculations  agree  in  placing  it  at 
nineteen  thousand  six  hundred  to  twenty-one  thousand  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  form  of  the  cone  is  nearly  pyramidal.  Rising  as  it  does  ten 
thousand  feet  above  the  mountains  in  its  vicinity,  it  is  invested  with  a 
spirit  of  regal  isolation  that  appalls  the  soul.  The  mountains  make  a 
curve  to  the  southwest  of  Teheran,  terminating  in  a  bare  rocky  ridge, 
around  whose  base  is  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  of  Rhages,  reputed  to 
have  numbered  a  population  of  one  million  in  the  time  of  Darjus.  In 
later  ages  that  city  was  called  Rhu  or  Rhe,  by  which  name  it  is  still 
known  to  the  Persians. 

Six  miles  from  Teheran  on  the  outskirts  of  the  site  of  Rhu,  stands 
the  celebrated  shrine  of  Shah  Abdul-Azim,  a  famous  saint  of  the 
Shahs.  The  Persians  have  their  own  sacred  resorts  and  shrines,  of 
which  Meshed  enjoys  great  celebrity,  for  it  contains  the  magnificent 
tomb  of  Imam  Rhezah,  one  of  the  twelve  holy  Imams  who  are  descended 
from  Alu  and  Fafhimeh.  But  there  is  no  resort  in  Persia  more  famed 
than  that  of  Shah  Abdul-Azim,  which  is  so  conveniently  situated  near 
the  capital  that  it  is  visited  by  over  three  hundred  thousand  pilgrims  an- 
nually from  Teheran  alone.  Every  Friday  (the  Mussulman  Sabbath)  the 
faithful  resort  to  this  shrine.  The  dome  that  hangs  over  the  tomb  of  the 
saint  is  gilded  and  is  seen  from  all  parts  of  the  plain,  flashing  like  a 
star. 

Of  the  many  gates  of  Teheran  the  handsomest  and  certainly  the 
most  imposing  is  the  large  gate  offering  entrance  on  the  north  to  the 
Ark,  or  Citadel.  It  faces  the  great  square  of  the  Department  of  War, 
which  is  in  itself  a  handsome  and  imposing  enclosure.  In  the  center  is 
an  octagonal  marble  tank,  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long,  always  kept 
full  to  the  brim.  At  each  corner  of  the  basin  an  enormous  old-fashioned 
cannon  is  mounted  on  a  platform.  The  four  sides  of  the  square  are 
occupied  by  barracks  and  government  offices  in  two  uniform  stories  re- 
lieved with  arches  and  including  on  the  east  side  a  handsome  portico 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


101 


supported  by  graceful  pillars  and  faced  with  glazed  tiles.  This  square 
is  entered  through  six  stately  gates,  which  are  closed  at  night.  Over 
the  great  gate  described  above  fly  thes  colors  of  Persia, — the  Lion  and 
the  Sun,  yellow  on  a  green  ground. 

Through  this  imposing  entrance  one  passes  into  a  darksome  narrow- 
passage,  which  but  little  suggests  the  spacious  and  attractive  court  to 
which  it  leads.  The  first  glance  at  the  windows  reveals  the  fact  that  the 
Persian  architects  are  masters  of  the  secret  of  successful  decorative  arch- 
itecture ;  they  appreciate  the  importance  of  massing  the  effect  instead  of 
scattering  it  by  meaningless  details. 

^J3ut  the  most  imposing  portion  of  the  palace  of  the  Shah  is  the  grand 
audience  chamber,  which  in  dimensions  and  splendor  of  effect  is  one  of 
the  most  imposing  halls  in  the  world.  The  ceiling  and  mural  decora- 
tions are  of  stucco,  but  so  were  those  in  the  Alhambra.  The  floor  is 
paved  w'ith  beautiful  glazed  tiles,  arranged  in  the  most  exquisite  mosaic. 
In  the  center  of  the  hall  is  a  large  table  overlaid  with  beaten  gold,  and  a 
long  row  of  arm  chairs  are  massively  splendid  with  the  same  costly  mate- 
rial covering  every  inch  of  space.  At  the  end  of  the  hall,  facing  the 
entrance,  is  the  famous  Peacock  Throne,  brought  from  Delhi  by  Madi 
Shah,  covered  with  gold  and  precious  stones  in  a  profusion  that  places 
the  lowest  estimate  of  its  value  at  not  less  than  thirteen  million  dollars. 
The  magnificence  of  the  Shah's  audience  hall  is  still  further  heightened 
by  the  fact  that  here  also  are  stored  many  of  the  crown  jewels.  The  re- 
serve of  coin  and  bullion  which  the  Shah  has  saved  from  his  revenues, 
equal  it  is  said  to  a  sum  of  thirty  millions  of  dollars,  is  safely  locked  up 
in  the  vaults  of  the  palace.  But  one  need  only  see  the  treasures  in  the 
audience  hall  to  obtain  an  idea  that  Persia  is  still  a  land  of  wealth,  and 
that  the  tales  of  splendor  recounted  in  Oriental  story  were  not  wholly 
the  fictions  of  a  fancy  steeped  in  opium  or  b'  hang.  Among  the  spoils 
of  ages  gathered  in  the  Shah's  treasury  are  superb  crowns  and  jeweled 
coats-of-mail  dating  back  four  centuries  to  the  reign  of  Shah  Ismael. 
In  a  glass  case  one  sees  a  large  heap  of  pearls  dense  as  a  pile  of  sand 
on  the  seashore.  Diamonds,  rubies,  emeralds  and  sapphires  catch  the 
eye  at  every  turn,  sometimes  flashing  forth  like  a  crimson  or  green  fire 
on  the  boss  of  a  buckler  or  helmet  worn  at  the  front  of  battle  ages  ago. 
One  ruby  there  is  in  that  mine  of  splendor  which,  on  being  placed  in 
water,  radiates  a  red  light  that  colors  the  water  like  the  blood  of  the  vine 
of  Burgundy.  There,  too,  is  a  globe  of  the  world  twenty  inches  in  diame- 
ter, turning  on  a  frame  of  solid  gold,  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  repre- 
sented by  precious  stones,  different  colors  being  used  to  indicate  the 


103 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


divisions  of  land  and  sea,  the  ocean  is  entirely  of  turquoise  and  Persia  is 
represented  by  a  compact  mosaic  of  diamonds.  The  famous  Dari-noor, 
or  Sea  of  Light,  the  second  of  known  diamonds  in  quality,  size  and  value, 
is  kept  carefully  locked  in  a  double  iron  chest,  but  is  shown  on  rare  occa- 
sions, and  is  worn  by  his  Majesty  on  great  state  days. 

I  have  mentioned  but  a  few  of  the  many  objects  of  splendor  collected 


in  this  magnificent  chamber,  of  audience,  which  still  cling  to  the  skirts  of 
this  old  Empire  as  evidences  of  her  past  triumphs  and  glory. 

The  vast  extent  of  territory  once  swayed  by  her  scepter,  considering 
that  it  is  scarce  two  centuries  since  Nadir  returned  from  the  sack  of 
Delhi,  every  soldier  of  his  army  weighted  with  treasures,  and  the  con- 
queror reserving  for  his  own  share  gems  valued  at  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred millions. 


'  In  no  court  is  there  more  rigid  attention  paid  to  ceremony.  The 
looks,  words,  and  even  the  movements  of  the  body  are  well  regulated 
by  the  strictest  forms.  When  the  king  is  seated  in  public  his  sons,  min- 
isters, and  courtiers,  stand  erect  with  their  hands  crossed  and  in  the 
exact  place  belonging  to  their  rank.  They  watch  his  looks  and  a  glance 
is  a  command.   If  he  speaks  to  them,  you  hear  a  voice  reply  and  see  the 


ONE  OF  THE  SEVEN  GATES  OF^OROOMIAH  CITY. 


THE  COURT  OF  PERSIA. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


103 


lips  move  but  not  a  motion  or  gesture  betrays  that  there  is  animation  in 
the  person  thus  addressed.  He  often  speaks  of  himself  in  the  third  per- 
son as,  "The  king  is  pleased.  The  king  commands."  His  ministers 
address  him  with  high-sounding  titles,  giving  expression  to  the  popular 
sentiments  with,  regard  to  him.  For  instance,  he  is  called  "The  object 
of  the  world's  regard,"  "Kiplah  i  alam  or  Point  of  the  Universe,"  "King 
of  Kings  and  the  lord  of  the  Universe." 

They  are  as  particular  in  forms  of  speech  as  in  other  ceremonies, 
and  superiority  and  inferiority  of  rank  in  all  their  graduations  are  implied 
by  the  terms  used  in  the  commonest  conversation.  Nothing  can  exceed 
the  splendor  of  the  Persian  court  on  extraordinary  occasions.  It  presents 
a  scene  of  the  greatest  magnificence  regulated  by  the  most  exact  order. 
To  no  part  of  the  government  is  so  much  attention  paid  as  to  the  strict 
maintenance  of  those  forms  and  ceremonies  which  are  deemed  essential 
to  the  power  and  glory  of  the  monarch ;  and  the  highest  officers  to  whom 
this  duty  is  allotted  are  armed  with  the  fullest  authority  and  are  always 
attended  by  a  number  of  inferiors  who  carry  their  commands  into  the 
most  popular  execution. 

The  Persian  Mohammedans  have  two  festivals.  One  is  called  Ed-al- 
Tits,  or  the  festival  after  abstinence,  and  commences  the  day  after  the 
fast  of  Ramazan.  The  second  is  called  Ed-al-koorban,  or  the  feast  of 
sacrifice  which  begins  on  the  tenth  of  the  month  of  Zulkada,  and  is  in- 
stituted in  commemoration  of  Abraham's  offering  up  of  Isaac.  This 
tenth  day  of  Zulkada  is  also  the  day  appointed  for  the  slaying  of  victims 
by  the  pilgrim  at  Mecca. 

There  is  also  another  great  festival  called  New  Rooz,  or  new  day  as 
is  the  feast  of  the  vernal  equinox,  21st  of  March.  This  is  the  greatest 
festival  observed  by  the  Persians  and  was  introduced  by  Jemshed,  a  Per- 
sian king,  who  ruled  many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  It  was  he 
who  introduced  into  Persia  the  reckoning  of  time  by  the  solar  year  and 
ordered  the  first  day  of  it  to  be  celebrated  by  a  splendid  festival  which 
is  to  this  day  observed  with  as  much  joy  and  festivity  as  Thanksgiving 
Day  or  Christmas  in  this  country.  On  this  day  the  bazaars  in  the  cities 
are  decorated  in  Persian  style  and  illuminated  in  a  gay  manner.  The 
king  marches  out  of  His  capital  attended  by  his  ministers,  nobles  and  as 
many  of  this  army  as  can  be  assembled,  remaining  out  as  long  as  he  de- 
sires. Upon  this  day  he  confers  vestments  of  honor  upon  his  nobles 
and  officers  and  receives  presents  from  them.  The  feast  is  kept  for  a 
week  with  equal  demonstrations  of  joy  in  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 
The  first  day,  however>  is  the  most  important.   Upon  that  day  all  ranks 


104 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


appear  in  their  newest  apparel.  They  send  presents  of  sweetmeats  to 
each  other  and  the  poor  are  not  forgotten.  In  the  streets  of  the  cities 
and  upon  the  country  roads  crowds  of  people  are  seen,  some  going  to 
visit  friends,  others  returning,  carrying  with  them  bundles  and  packages 
of  sweetmeats  or  presents.  Indeed,  this  is  a  day  of  joy  and  gladness 
throughout  the  kingdom,  a  national  holiday  observed  by  all  the  Shah's 
subjects.  They  think  of  it  with  a  great  deal  of  pride  and  look  forward 
to  it  with  the  pleasantest  anticipations. 

There  are  persons  who  bear  the  name  of  story  tellers  around  whom 
are  often  seen  crowds  of  people  in  the  public  squares  or  other  places 
which  are  suitable  for  their  entertainments.  Although  Persians  are  pas- 
sionately fond  of  public  exhibitions,  still  they  have  none  that  deserve 
the  name  of  theatrical  entertainments ;  but  though  strangers  to  the  regu- 
lar drama  their  stories  are  often  dramatic ;  and  those  whose  occupation 
is  to  tell  them  sometimes  display  so  extraordinary  a  skill  and  such  varied 
powers  that  we  can  hardly  believe  while  we  look  on  their  altered  coun- 
tenances and  listen  to  their  changed  tones,  that  it  is  the  same  person, 
who  at  one  moment  tells  a  plain  narrative  in  his  natural  voice,  then 
speaks  in  the  coarse  and  angry  tone  of  offended  authority,  and  next  sub- 
dues the  passions  he  has  excited  by  the  softest  sounds  of  feminine  tender- 
ness. The  art  of  telling  stories  is  attended  both  with  art  and  reputation. 
Great  numbers  attempt  it  but  few  succeed.  It  requires  considerable 
talents  and  great  study.  None  can  arrive  at  eminence  except  men  of 
cultivated  taste  and  retentive  memory.  They  must  not  only  be  ac- 
quainted with  the  best  ancient  and  modern  stories,  but  be  able  to  vary 
them  by  introducing  new  incidents  which  they  have  heard  or  invented. 
They  must  also  recollect  the  finest  passages  of  the  most  popuiar  poets 
to  aid  the  impression  of  the  narrative  by  appropriate  quotations.  Kings 
of  Persia  used  to  have  especially  such  a  story  teller  whose  office  it  was 
to  amuse  his  majesty  with  such  stories.  His  tales  are  artfully  made  to  suit 
the  disposition  and  momentary  humor  of  the  monarch.  Sometimes  he  re- 
cites a  story  of  the  former  sovereign,  or  of  the  love  of  some  wandering 
prince ;  often  the  story  is  of  coarser  materials  and  the  king  is  entertained 
with  low  and  obscene  adventures. 

The  Persian  kings  have  always  attached  great  importance  to  having 
a  good  band  of  musicians  for  their  own  enjoyment,  and  the  present  Shah 
is  not  an  exception  to  that  rule.  Indeed,  his  band  is  claimed  by  some 
to  be  the  best  in  the  world. 

The  princes,  nobles,  ministers  and  public  officers  of  high  rank  imi- 
tate the  king  in  many  ways.  All  the  respect  they  pay  to  him  they  exact 


106 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


from  their  inferiors.  Each  in  his  rank  has  a  petty  court  of  his  own,  with 
about  the  same  forms  and  regulated  about  the  same  manner,  and  by  offi- 
cers bearing  the  same  official  names  as  those  who  attend  the  monarch. 
Every  chief  or  officer  of  high  station  has  his  harem,  his  secretaries,  his 
officers  of  ceremonies,  his  master  of  horse,  and  sometimes  even,  his  poet 
and  jester.  In  his  house  there  is  as  strict  attention  to  exactness  of  con- 
duct as  in  the  palaces  of  his  sovereign.  Sensible  of  the  conditions  by 
which  they  are  surrounded,  these  persons  appear  as  desirous  of  obtaining 
money  and  as  eager  to  spend  it  lavishly  for  their  own  pleasure  as  do 
those  of  the  same  rank  in  other  countries.  Women,  horses,  rich  armor 
and  elegant  clothing  are  the  principal  objects  of  their  desires.  Their 
splendid  apartments  are  furnished  with  rich  Persian  carpets  and  are  gen- 
erally so  situated  as  to  be  perfumed  by  flower  gardens  and  refreshed  by 
fountains.  One  of  their  chief  pleasures  is  to  sit  in  these  elegant  apart- 
ments and  enjoy  their  tea,  coffee,  and  tobacco  and  feast  their  friends. 
Their  meals  are  always  abundant  and  even  sumptuous.  Nor  does  it  mar 
this  enjoyment  in  the  least  to  know  that  they  have  all  their  wealth  at  the 
expense  of  their  oppressed  people  whom  they  lord  it  over.  Many  officers 
in  the  kingdom  take  bribes  and  fines  from  the  poor  in  order  to  accumulate 
large  fortunes,  then  go  to  the  capital  city  and  give  so  much  as  a  bribe 
to  this  prince  and  so  much  to  that  minister,  in  order  to  be  introduced  to 
the  king.  Then  he  gives  a  large  sum  as  a  present  to  the  king,  who  in 
turn  confers  upon  him  a  title  and  in  this  way  he  becomes  a  great  man 
and  adds  to  the  power  he  already  has  to  the  oppression  of  his  inferiors. 
Merchants  and  trades  people  who  secure  titles  for  their  children  by  means 
of  the  fortunes  they  have  made  in  trade  are  not  by  any  means  the  only 
class  who  get  titles  without  deeds  of  heroism.  There  are  many  such  in 
Persia  whose  sole  title  to  greatness  is  the  power  to  oppress  and  overtax. 

THE  NOBLEMAN. 

The  nobility  of  Persia  lead  a  life  of  luxury.  Such  titles  as  counts 
and  lords  are  not  obtained  by  conspicuous  service  to  the  nation  or  coun- 
try, nor  by  proficiency  in  knowledge  and  learning,  but  by  descendancy, 
and  many  an  ignorant  and  unworthy  person  bears  them.  Wealthy  mer- 
chants also  purchase  them  for  their  offspring.  The  titled  class  in  Persia 
is  very  numerous.  In  a  city  of  60,000  inhabitants  there  are  more  than 
500  counts.  They  own  the  bulk  of  the  Persian  soil.  In  some  instances 
one  count  owns  as  many  as  one  hundred  villages.  The  poor  rayat  or 
tenant  must  pay  his  landlord  one-half  or  two-thirds  of  all  the  produce 
of  his  farm.  Aside  from  this  a  poll  tax  and  a  tax  on  his  house  must  be 


107 


L08 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


paid.  His  cattle,  sheep  and  goats  are  taxed,  he  must  deliver  unto  his  land- 
lord two  fowls,  two  loads  of  fuel,  and  a  quantity  of  eggs  annually,  and 
when  his  sons  or  daughters  are  married  a  marriage  fee  must  be  paid. 
His  meadows  and  orchards  are  also  taxed,  and  only  the  yoke  of  oxen  with 
which  he  tills  the  ground  are  excepted  from  taxation.  But  this  is  not  all. 
He  is  literally  at  the  mercy  of  his  agha  or  master,  a  name  which  very 
correctly  expresses  the  relation  between  landlord  and  peasant.  The  land- 
lord legally  may  clemand  three  days  of  labor  from  his  rayat  without  pay- 
ing for  it,  but  in  reality  he  makes  them  work  for  him  as  much  as  he 
pleases.  Whenever  he  pays  a  visit  at  one  of  his  peasant's  houses,  he 
simply  and  unceremoniously  appropriates  whatever  he  condescends  to 
find  worthy  of  taking.  The  peasant  is  held  to  buy  his  grain  and  flour 
from  his  landlord  and  must  silently  pay  for  these  things  whatever  price 
the  master  puts  on  them,  even  far  above  the  market  price.  For  the  slight- 
est offense  he  is  subjected  to  severe  chastisement,  being  even  ordered  by 
his  master  to  be  tied  and  cruelly  beaten. 

And  to  all  this  and  even  more  and  worse  outrages  must  the  poor 
peasant  submit,  for  fear  of  still  greater  persecutions  in  case  of  complaint. 
Christians  have  more  to/  bear  than  Moslem  neighbors ;  they  are  inferior 
beings — "infidels,"  "Christian  dogs."  The  meanest  Mohammedan  is  con- 
sidered better  than  they.  A  Christian  may  not  eat  with  a  Moslem ;  he 
must  not  enter  their  houses  with  moist  clothing.  If  struck  by  a  Moham- 
medan he  dares  not  strike  back.  In  the  courts  he  is  not  considered  their 
equal;  his  life  and  property  are  not  equally  secure.  Should  a  Moham- 
medan, for  example,  take  a  fancy  to  the  daughter  of  a  Christian,  even  at 
the  tender  age  of  7  or  10  years,  he  will  take  her  to  his  harem.  An  appeal 
to  the  governor  would  avail  nothing,  as  it  would  simply  be. answered  by 
the  statement  that  she  has  declared  to  turn  Mohammedan.  She  is  lost  to 
her  family  and  religion  forever,  and  should  the  parents  ever  so  much 
argue  that  the  child  is  too  young  to  decide  upon  her  own  religion,  or  that 
she  in  all  probability  has  been  cajoled  or  frightened  into  making  the 
change,  or  should  the  parents  plead  ever  so  much  to  be  allowed  an  inter- 
view with  her  for  just  a  few  moments — she  remains  where  she  has  been 
taken  and  grows  up  an  inmate  of  a  harem ! 

By  Persian  law  all  converts  to  the  Islam  may  claim  a  lion's  share  of 
their  father's  estate.  It  therefore  pays  indigent  Mohammedans  well  to 
entice  young  daughters  of  well-to-do  Christians  away  from  their  homes. 

Here  is  another  instance :  The  governor  demanded  from  a  merchant 
an  amount  far  in  excess  of  the  just  taxes.  The  merchant  refused.  The 
result  was  that  the  governor  took  away  all  his  property.   To  seek  redress, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


10.9 


the  merchant  petitioned  the  Shah  and  graciously  received  a  royal  order  to 
the  governor  to  have  his  possessions  restored  to  him.  Full  of  cheer  and 
good  hope  the  merchant  traveled  back  and  presented  the  written  order 
to  the  governor.  After  reading  the  decree  the  governor  looked  keenly 
at  the  man  for  a  moment,  and  then  exclaimed,  derisively :  "Ha !  You 
thought  you  could  frighten  me  by  reporting  me  to  the  Shah !  You  are 
indeed  a  brave  man.  Little  did  I  expect  you  to  be  a  man  of  so  much 
courage.  But  so  brave  a  man  must  needs  have  a  brave  heart.  This  brave 
heart  of  yours  I  must  see,  so  as  to  learn  courage  from  it."  Then  in  a  sub- 
dued tone  he  gave  the  order  to  his  servants :  "Take  out  that  man's 
heart."  The  servants  immediately  fell  upon  the  merchant,  slew  him  on 
the  spot,  tore  out  his  heart  and  presented  it  to  the  governor  on  a  tray. 

Counts  and  lords  are  the  most  immoral  class  of  people  in  all  Persia. 
They  are  illiterate,  know  nothing  of  geography,  mathematics  or  political 
economy,  though  most  of  them  can  read  and  write  their  own  language 
and  have  a  limited  knowledge  of  local  history.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising 
that  such  indolent,  voluptuous  people  grow  immoral,  for  among  them  it 
is  considered  a  disgrace  to  do  work  of  any  kind. 

SHAHR  AND  THE  URF. 

Persian  law  is  divided  into  two  departments — the  Shahr  and  the 
Urf.  The  former  is  administered  by  the  Mollahs,  or  priests,  and  is  based 
upon  the  Koran.  The  latter  is  the  oral  law  administered  by  secular  judges, 
who  decide  cases  in  equity  and  traditions,  or  precedents  orally  handed 
down. 

As  the  Urf  is  administered  independently  of  the  Shahr,  an  increase 
of  powers  would  gradually  result  in  the  extinction  of  the  latter.  It  is 
undoubtedly  the  aim  of  the  government  to  bring  about  such  a  change, 
as  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  promoting  the  elevation  of  Per- 
sia to  the  plane  of  modern*  progress,  but  any  effort  in  this  direction  can 
be  pursued  only  with  great  shrewdness  and  caution,  for  the  Mollahs 
are  naturally  violently  opposed  to  any  abridgement  of  their  power.  In  a 
general  way  the  Urf  takes  cognizance  of  criminal  cases  and  the  Shahr 
of  civil  ones.  The  criminal  is  tried  before  the  hakem  or  ket-hodah  of  a 
town  or  village;  in  the  awarding  of  penalties,  however,  he  follows  the 
rule  prescribed  by  the  Shahr  so  far  as  they  have  not  passed  into  desue- 
tude. 

Sometimes  a  criminal  case  is  appealed  directly  to  the  governor  of 
the  province  or  to  the  Shah  himself.  This  is  especially  the  case  if  one 


11(1 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


of  the  parties  involved  is  in  any  way  connected  with  the  government.  The 
Shah  or  the  governor  concerns  himself  little  with  the  law  in  such  events, 
but  decided  at  once,  and  with  a  word,  a  gesture,  decrees  retribution  or 
reward.  But  although  all  questions  not  of  a  civil  nature  are  by  custom 
relegated  to  the  decision  of  the  Urf,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  judge 
to  allow  a  case  to  be  appealed  to  the  Shahr  when  it  is  of  special  difficulty, 
or  when  the  rank  of  the  party  is  such  as  to  make  him  dread  the  con- 
sequences of  his  decision.  Any  decision  rendered  by  the  religious  ex- 
pounders of  the  Shahr  is  accepted  without  demur  as  final ;  the  sacredness 
of  the  Shahr  and  the  sanctity  of  those  who  administer  decisions  based 
upon  it  make  it  impossible  to  dispute  the  decisions  of  that  august  tri- 
bunal. While,  therefore,  the  Urf  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  justice,  the  Shahr  continues  by  far  the  most  important 
legal  authority  in  the  land,  and  it  is  by  a  study  of  that  code  and  the  meth- 
ods of  administering  it  that  one  can  alone  form  any  correct  conception  of 
the  administration  of  justice  in  Persia. 

The  Shahr  consists  of  a  vast  collection  of  dicta  applying  to  every  con- 
ceivable situation  in  life.  Like  the  theocratic  codes  of  other  Musselmans 
it  is  based  on  the  Koran,  but  differs  from  them  in  the  fact  that  it  is  en- 
larged and  fortified  by  the  opinions  of  the  twelve  Holy  Imams,  these 
Imams  being  considered  by  the  Sheahs  to  be  the  true  caliphs  and  their 
opinions  having  scarcely  less  weight  than  if  delivered  from  the  Al- 
mighty. 

Early  in  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism  is  was  the  custom  oi  the 
disciples  of  the  Prophet  to  have  recourse  to  him  for  explanation  or  ex- 
pansion of  the  vague  declarations  of  the  Koran.  After  his  death  these 
commentaries  were  generally  transmitted  orally,  and  were  called  tradi- 
tions, becoming  in  time  very  voluminous,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to 
reduce  and  codify  them,  adding  opinions  regarding  the  more  obscure  en- 
actments. Hence  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Imams.  The  code  of  Persia 
treats  of  religious  rites  and  duties ;  of  contracts  and  obligations ;  of  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  person;  and  of  laws  relating  to  cheese,  meats  and 
drinks,  legal  procedure,  and  the  specifications  of  penalties  both  from 
a  religious  and  a  civil  point  of  view.  Many  of  the  laws  of  the  Shahr  are 
based  on  sound  reason,  and  in  their  application  are  not  unlike  the  laws 
of  other  countries. 

Some  of  the  features  of  the  Shahr  are  as  follows :  Any  man  is  for- 
bidden to  say  his  prayers  in  the  presence  of  any  woman  who,  either  at  his 
side  or  before  him,  are  also  praying,  whether  praying  together  with  him 
or  alone;  and  without  regard  to  the  character  of  the  woman,  whether 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


Ill 


she  be  wife  or  within  the  forbidden  degree  of  kinship,  or  a  stranger.  If 
the  woman  is  behind  the  man  at  such  distance  that  in  prostrating  her- 
self she  cannot  touch  his  feet,  then  the  man  also  may  do  his  praying. 

One  should  avofd  praying  before  an  open  fire,  before  the  painted  or 
graven  figures  or  images  of  animate  objects,  or  the  stable  of  horses,  asses 
or  mules ;  but  it  is  permitted  in  a  sheepfold.  One  is  forbidden  to  pray  in 
an  apartment  wherein  there  is  a  fire-worshiper ;  the  presence  of  a  Christ- 
ian or  a  Jew  is  unimportant.  One  should  avoid  having  an  open  book 
before  him,  and  should  not  pray  before  an  overhanging  wall  or  in  a  room 
where  there  is  a  pot  de  chambre. 

"He  who  is  dumb  must  wag  his  tongue  while  mentally  repeating 
his  prayers.  The  spot  where  the  forehead  should  touch  (during  the 
genuflections  of  prayer)  should  be  on  the  same  horizontal  plane  on  which 
the  feet  rest ;  nevertheless,  one  may  exceed  this  line  by  the  thickness  of 
one  brick  or  more." 

Such  are  a  few  examples  of  the  549  laws  respecting  religious  wor- 
ship. The  regulations  concerning  fasting  and  pilgrimage  number  no 
less  than  1,102. 

The  law  of  sales  includes  625. 

"It  is  permissable  to  sell  a  piece  of  cloth  or  of  land  simply  by  a  gen- 
eral exhibition  of  them  to  the  purchaser,  without  obliging  him  to  make 
a  minute  inspection." 

Proof  by  taste  or  smell  is  indespensable  when  the  object  of  sale  is 
eatable  or  smellable.'  Articles  of  such  a  nature  that  they  cannot  be  tested 
without  breaking  them — such  as  nuts,  melons  or  eggs,  may  be  sold  in 
ignorance  of  the  condition  of  the  contents ;  and  in  the  event  of  the  pur- 
chaser finding  them  defective,  he  has  the  right  to  interest  and  damages, 
but  not  to  a  return  of  the  article. 

"It  is  not  permitted  to  sell  fruits  on  the  tree  before  they  are  shaped, 
that  is,  before  the  kernel  is  formed,  but  when  they  have  reached  that 
state  they  may  be  sold. 

"After  it  is  matured,  fruit  may  be  sold  with  or  without  the  tree.  It 
is  not  permitted  to  sell  the  fruits  green  in  color  (at  maturity)  before  they 
become  green." 

It  is  recommended  to  the  purchaser  of  a  slave  to  change  his  name ; 
to  cause  him  to  eat  sweetmeats  at  the  time,  and  to  offer  alms.  One  should 
avoid  counting  or  weighing  the  purchase  money  for  a  slave  in  his  pres- 
ence. Slaves  are  thought  a  great  deal  of  in  Persia.  As  a  rule  masters 
are  very  kind  to  them,  so  that  not"  seldom  one  may  hear  a  master  ad- 
dressed by  his  slave  with  "My  father,"  and  the  master  in  replying  will 


LI  2 


PERSIA'BY  A  PERSIAN. 


call  him  "My  son."  Slaves  are  well  taken  care  of  in  clothing  and  nourish- 
ment. They  differ  in  color  and  value.  The  "Habshi"  are  the  most  ex- 
pensive; the  "Somali"  range  next  in  price;  the  Negro  slave  being  the 
cheapest  in  price,  ancl  only  employed  as  cooks.  One  good  "Habshi" 
will  bring  $250;  a  good  "Somali,"  $150,  while  the  market  price  for  the 
best  among  the  Negro  slaves,  which  are  taxed  according  to  their 
strength,  is  but  $70. 

Not  less  than  1,412  different  chapters  are  used  in  the  Shahr  for 
subjects  on  marriage  and  divorce,  besides  a  large  number  on  concubin- 
age, slaves  and  rearing  of  children. 

The  prophet  hath  said,  "Marry  and  establish  a  family;"  the  most 
wicked  among  the  dead  are  the  celibates ;  he  who  desires  to  contract  a 
marriage  should  seek  after  a  woman  combining  four  requisites  :  legitimat  e 
birth,  virginity,  prolificness  and  chastity."  One  should  not  be  content 
with  beauty  and  riches ;  it  is  even  forbidden  to  marry  with  these  points 
alone  in  view.  Marriage  should  not  be  consumated  while  the  moon  is  in 
the  sign  of  the  scorpion ;  during  an  eclipse  of  the  moon ;  on  a  day  when 
there  will  be  an  eclipse  of  the  sun ;  at  noon ;  towards  the  end  of  twilight ; 
during  the  last  three  days  of  the  month  ;*  between  dawn  and  sunrise ;  dur- 
ing the  first  night  of  each  month,  excepting  the  month  of  Ramazan ;  dur- 
ing the  middle  night  of  the  month;  while  on  a  journey;  in  a  tempest,  nor 
during  an  earth-quake. 

When  marriage  is  being  proposed  to  a  maiden,  her  silence  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  consent.  The  consent  of  a  widow,  however,  or  a  divorcee,  must 
be  audibly  pronounced  to  be  legally  valid.  Any  man  may  form  as  many 
temporary  marriages  as  he  chooses.  If  the  husband  desires  one  of  his 
wives  to  accompany  him  on  a  journey,  the  selection  is  made  by  casting 
the  lot.   Husbands  are  recommended  to  treat  all  their  wives  alike. 

Divorce  is  pronounced  by  a  husband  in  the  presence  of  not  less  than 
two  witnesses.  In  doing  this,  one  of  three  statutory  formulas  must  be 
used,  any  other  version,  though  expressing  the  intention  ever  so  clearly, 
are  invalid.  He  must  either  say  "Ente  talekun,"  (thou  art  divorced)  or 
"Felanet  talekun"  (such  a  one  is  divorced),  or  "Hazee  talekun"  (this 
person  is  divorced).  The  Arabic  formula  must  always  be  used. 

There  are  also  three  kinds  of  divorce,  one  by  virtue  of  which  the 
husband  cannot  take  back  the  divorced  wife;  one  with  this  privilege 
reserved ;  and  the  temporary  divorce,  for  the  purpose  of  proving  whether 


*The  last  three  days  of  a  month  are  called  el  mohak,  which  signifies 
the  moon  is  below  the  horizon. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


113 


the  woman  is  pregnant  by;  a  husband  from  whom  she  was  previously 
divorced.  The  irrevocable  divorce  is  brought  about  when  a  husband 
pronounces  the  formula  of  divorce  upon  a  wife  whom  he  has  twice  before 
taken  as  his  wife  again.  The  temporary  marriage  is  an  institution  pecu- 
liar to  Persia  and  abhorred  by  all  Mohammedans  elsewhere.  The  Shahrs 
defend  it  on  the  plea  that  it  was  not  prohibited  by  the  Prophet,  and  con- 
sequently must  be  right,  according  to  a  fundamental  principle  of  their 
law  that  whatsoever  is  not  prohibited  by  law  is  allowed.  The  most  im- 
portant feature  of  the  temporary  matrimony,  however,  is  the  dowry  paid 
by  the  husband ;  without  this  parents  would  scarcely  permit  their  daugh- 
ters to  enter  into  it.  Four  conditions  are  indispensable  to  the  legality 
of  such  a  marriage — the  contract^  the  personal  conditions,  the  dowry, 
and  the  stipulated  time  for  which  the  marriage  is  contracted.  The  con- 
tract is  legal  and  binding  only  when  it  has  been  drawn  in  legal  form 
before  or  by  a  Mollah.  As  to  the  duration  of  such  a  temporary  marriage 
the  law  provides  no  limit,  the  matter  being  settled  by  mutual  agreement ; 
it  may  be  for  a  fraction  of  a  day  or  for  ninety-nine  years ;  it  may  even 
antedate  the  day  when  the  contract  is  written  if  so  desired  by  both 
parties. 

Penalties  for  fornication,  adultery,  sodomy  and  similar  vices  are  very 
severe,  lapidation  being  the  most  common  upon  repetition  of  the  last 
named,  and  for  the  conviction  of  the  first  named  even  after  the  first 
offense.  Not  less  than  395  chapters  treat  of  the  laws  of  procedure.  To 
administer  the  Shahr  a  judge  must  be  of  legal  age,  sound  of  mind,  faithful 
in  performing  the  duties  of  the  Islam,  of  reputable  life,  of  legitimate  birth, 
well  instructed  and  of  the  male  sex.  He  should  also  be  endowed  with  a 
good  memory,  for  one  who  lacks  this  faculty  is  incapable  of  properly 
exercising  judicial  functions. 

The  principle  which  regulates  the  Mussulman's  connubial  life  he 
expresses  when  upon  any  occasion,  but  most  often  before  his  marriage 
he  will  say  to  his  wife :  "It  is  my  privilege  to  love  many  women,  and  it  is 
your  duty  to  love  only  me.  Now  attend  thou  to  thy  duty  and  I  will  see 
to  my  privilege."  Taking  a  walk  with  his  wife  a  Mohammedan  would  be 
disgraced  should  she  go  before  him  or  by  his  side;  she  must  obediently 
follow  behind.  For  wife  murder  a  man  can  be  fined  a  sum  of  money,  but 
the  law  will  not  find  him  guilty  of  homicide,  as  woman  is  not  considered 
equal  to  man  before  the  law.  A  man  meeting  a  woman  anywhere  in 
public  or  private  will  not  salute  her,  but  the  woman  is  expected  to  greet 
him  with  a  courteous  nod. 


L14 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


LAND  (ARABICARZ). 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  rules  of  Muslim  law  relating 
to  land :  (i)  Tithes  or  Zakat  on  lands.  Upon  everything  produced 
from  the  ground  there  is  due  a  tenth,  or  ashir,  whether  the  soil  be  watered 
by  the  annual  overflow  of  the  great  rivers,  or  by  periodical  rains ;  except- 
ing upon  articles  of  wood,  bamboos,  and  grass,  which  are  not  subject  to 
tithe.  Lands  watered  by  means  of  buckets  or  machinery,  such  as  Persian 
wheels,  or  by  watering  camels,  are  subject  to  only  half  tithes. 

(2.)  Conquered  lands  become  the  property  of  the  state.  Those  of 
idolators  remain  so.  Those  belonging  to  Jews  or  Christians,  or  Fire 
worshipers,  are  secured  to  the  owners  on  payment  of  tribute.  Those  who 
afterwards  embrace  Islam  recover  their  property,  according  to  ash- 
Shafi'i,  but  not  according  to  the  Hanifah  school.  Upon  the  Muslim  army 
evacuating  an  enemy's  country,  it  becomes  >  unlawful  for  the  troops  to 
feed  their  cattle  on  the  land  without  due  payment. 

(3)  Appropriation  for  religious  uses.  Land  may  be  so  appropriated ; 
but  if  a  person  appropriate  land  for  such  a  purpose  and  it  should  after- 
wards be  discovered  that  an  indefinite  portion  of  it  was  the  property  of 
another  person,  the  appropriation  is  void  with  respect  to  the  remainder 
also.  The  appropriation  must  also  be  of  a  perpetual  and  not  of  a  tem- 
porary nature. 

(4)  The  sale  of  land  is  lawful.  In  such  sales  the  trees  upon  the  land 
are  included  in  the  sale,  whether  specified  or  not ;  but  neither  the  grain 
growing  on  the  ground,  nor  the  fruit  growing  on  the  trees,  are  included, 
unless  specified. 

(5)  Claims  against  land  must  be  made  by  the  plaintiff,  defining  the 
four  boundaries  and  specifying  the  names  of  each  possessor,  and  the  de- 
mand for  the  land  must  be  made  in  explicit  terms.  And  if  the  land  has 
been  resold,  a  decree  must  be  given  either  for  or  against  the  last  pos- 
sessor, according  to  some  doctors. 

(6)  Land  can  be  lent,  and  the  borrower  can  build  upon  it,  but  when 
the  lender  receives  back  his  land,  he  can  compel  the  borrower  to  remove 
his  houses  and  trees.  Land  lent  for  tillage  cannot  be  resumed  by  the 
lender  until  the  crops  sown  have  been  reaped.  Abu  Hanifah  maintains 
that  when  land  is  lent  to  another,  the  contract  should  be  in  these  words, 
"You  have  given  me  to  eat  of  this  land." 

(7)  A  gift  of  land  which  is  uncultivated  cannot  be  retracted  after 
houses  have  been  built  on1  it  or  trees  planted.   If  the  donee  sell  half  of 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


115 


the  granted  land,  the  donor  in  that  case  may,  if  he  wishes,  resume  the 
other  half.  If  a'  person  make  a  gift  of  land  to  his  relative  within  the  pro- 
hibited degrees  it  is  not  lawful  for  him  to  resume  it. 

(8)  The  Ijarah,  or  rental  of  land,  is  lawful,  but  the  period  must  be 
specified,  otherwise  the  rent  may  be  demanded  from  day  to  day.  But  a 
lease  of  land  is  not  lawful  unless  mention  is  made  of  the  article  to  be 
raised  upon  it,  and  at  the  expiration  of  the  lease  the  land  must  be  restored 
in  its  original  state.  A  hirer  of  land  is  not  responsible  for  accidents ;  for 
oxample,  if  in  burning  off  the  stubble  he  happens  to  burn  other  property, 
he  is  not  responsible  for  loss  incurred. 


PLOWING  WITH  OXEN. 

(9)  The  cultivation  of  waste  and  unclaimed  lands  is  lawful,  when  it 
is  done  with  the  permission  of  the  ruler  of  the  country,  and  the  act  of 
cultivation  invests  the  cultivator  with  a  right  of  property  in  them.  But 
if  the  land  be  not  cultivated  for  three  years  after  it  has  been  allotted,  it 
may  again  be  claimed  by  the  state. 

(10)  If  a  person  be  slain  on  lands  belonging  to  anyone,  and  situated 
near  a  village,  and  the  proprietor  of  the  land  be  not  an  inhabitant  of  the 
village,  he  is  responsible  for  the  murder,  as  the  regulation  and  protection 
of  those  lands  rest  upon  him. 

MODES  OF  PUNISHMENT. 

The  prisons  are  frequently  cellars,  underground,  without  windows, 
damp  and  infested  with  flies.    They  are  seldom  ventilated. 


110 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


These  pits,  or  prisons,  are  long  and  narrow  and  have  each  a  heavy 
timber  reaching  across  the  middle,  on  which  chains  of  iron  are  fastened 
to  secure  prisoners.  The  floor  is  made  of  clay  and  there  is  no  means 
of  admitting  light  or  fresh  air  into  these  dungeons,  which  in  conse- 
quence are  full  of  all  kinds  of  vermin.  There  is  no  bed  or  furniture.  The 
government  does  not  feed  the  inmates ;  their  friends  bring  bread  and 
throw  it  to  them,  and  some  of  this  is  even  sometimes  picked  up  by  the 
jailor  and  kept  for  his  own  nourishment.  No  men  are  allowed  to  visit 
the  prisons,  but  wives  or  daughters  may  purchase  this  privilege  by  pay- 
ing a  fee  to  the  jailor.  The  torture  of  prisoners  is  regulated  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  crimes.  The  common  method  of  torture  for  thieves, 


A  CHAINED  GANG 

robbers  and  murderers,  is  to  put  the  bare  foot  of  the  criminal  in  a  vise, 
and  squeeze  it  until  he  cries  in  agony.  If  he  gives  the  jailor  some  money, 
or  promises  to  give  some  the  next  time  his  friends  visit  him,  the  pres- 
sure on  the  foot  is  lessened.  If  a  man  goes  to  jail  wearing  good  clothes, 
the  jailor  often  exchanges  his  own  poorer  suit  for  the  good  ones. 

Hanging.  This  sentence  is  executed  much  as  it  is  in  this  country. 
The  gallows  consists  of  two  posts  with  a  crossbeam  on  top  from  which 
the  criminal  is  suspended  by  means  of  a  rope  fastened  around  his  neck. 

Vaults.  These  are  built  of  brick  in  the  shape  of  a  barrel  and  as  deep 
as  a  man's  height.  A  man  who  is  sentenced  to  this  form  of  punishment 
is  brought  and  placed  in  the  vault  with  his  head  exposed.    He  is  then 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


117 


plastered  down  with  mortar  all  around  him.  This  hardens  and  he  is 
squeezed  to  death. 

Cutting  off  the  hands.  A  bad  thief  when  caught  for  the  first  time 
may  have  one  of  his  hands  taken  off.  Should  he  not  stop  stealing  then 
and  should  he  be  caught  a  second  time  his  other  hand  may  be  cut  off. 

Cutting  off  an  ear.  This  is  a  very  simple  and  insignificant  form  of 
punishment,  inflicted  also  by  the  executioner. 

Torturing.  In  order  to  exact  a  confession  of  guilt  or  have  a  prisoner 
turn  states  evidence  this  punishment  is  employed. 

Whipping.  In  this  they  lay  the  criminal  down.  One  man  holds 
his  feet,  another,  his  head,  while  one  stands  on  each  side  of  him  and 
beats  him  on  his  back  by  turns.  When  their  switches  break  they  take 
others,  for  there  are  always  a  supply  of  them  kept  in  the  magistrate's 
court  yard  in  a  pool  of  water  to  keep  them  soft.  When  they  have  whipped 
the  criminal  long  enough  to  satisfy  their  ideas  of  justice  they  fine  him 
and  let  him  go. 

EXECUTOR     (Arabic  Wasi), 

a  term  also  used  for  the  testator ;  wakil'ala'l  wasiyah.  An  executor  hav- 
ing accepted  his  appointment  in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  is  not  after- 
wards at  liberty  to  withdraw,  and  any  act  indicative  of  his  having  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  executor  binds  him  to  fulfill  his  duties. 

A  Muslim  may  not  appoint  a  slave,  or  a  reprobate  or  an  infidel  as 
his  executor,  and  in  the  event  of  his  doing  so,  the  Oazi  must  nominate 
a  proper  substitute.  But,  if  none  of  the  testator's  heirs  have  attained 
their  majority,  a  slave  may  be  appointed  as  executor  until  they  are  of  age. 

If  joint  executors  have  been  appointed  and  one  of  them  die,  the  Oazi 
must  appoint  a  substitute  in  office. 

In  the  cases  of  infants  or  absent  heirs,  the  executor  is  entitled  to 
possess  himself,  pro  tern,  of  their  property,  but  he  cannot  trade  with  his 
ward's  portion. 

If  a  person  die  without  appointing  an  executor,  the  next  of  kin  ad- 
ministers the  estate,  and  it  is  an  arrangement  of  Muslim  law  that  his 
father  is  his  executor  and  not  his  eldest  son. 

CRUELTY. 

A  striking  instance  of  the  cruelty  of  Muhammad's  character  occurs 
in  a  tradition.  "Some  of  the  people  of  the  tribe  of  'Ukl  came  to  the 
prophet  and  embraced  Islam ;  but  the  air  of  al-Madinah  did  not  agree 
with  them,  and  they  wanted  to  leave  the  place.   And  the  prophet  ordered 


118 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


them  to  go  where  the  camels,  given  in  alms,  were  assembled,  and  to 
drink  their  milk,  which  they  did,  and  recovered  from  their  sickness.  But 
after  this  they  became  apostates,  and  renounced  Islam,  and  stole  the 
camels.  Then  the  prophet  sent  some  people  after  them,  and  they  were 
seized  and  brought  back  to  al-Madinah.  Then  the  prophet  ordered 
their  hands  and  feet  to  be  cut  off  as  a  punishment  for  theft,  and  their 
eyes  to  be  pulled  out.  But  the  prophet  did  not  stop  the  bleeding,  and 
they  died."  And  in  another  it  reads,  "The  prophet  ordered  hot  irons  to 
be  drawn  across  their  eyes,  and  then  to  be  cast  on  the  plain  of  al-Madi- 
nah; and  when  they  asked  for  water  it  was  not  given  them,  and  they 
died." 

HIGHWAY  ROBBERY  (Arabic  gatu). 
Persian  rahzani.  Highway  robbery  is  a  very  heinous  offense  ac- 
cording to  Mohammedan  law,  the  punishment  of  which  has  been  fixed 
by  the  Our'an  (Surah  v.  37) :  "The  recompense  of  those  who  war  against 
God  and  His  apostle  and  go  about  to  enact  violence  on  the  earth,  is  that 
they  be  slain  or  crucified  or  have  their  alternate  hands  and  feet  cut  off, 
or  be  banished  the  land."  According  to  the  Hidayah,  highway  robbers 
are  of  four  kinds,  viz.  (1)  Those  who  are  seized  before  they  have  robbed 
or  murdered  any  person,  or  put  any  persons  in  fear.  These  are  to  be 
imprisoned  by  the  magistrate  until  their  repentance  is  evident.  (2)  Those 
who  have  robbed  but  have  not  murdered.  These  are  to  have  their  right 
hand  and  left  foot  struck  off.  (3)  Those  who  have  committed  murder, 
but  have  not  robbed.  These  are  punished  with  death.  (4)  Those  who 
have  committed  both  robbery  and  murder.  These  are  punished  accord- 
ing to  the  opinion  of  the  magistrate.  If  he  please,  he  can  first  cut  off 
a  hand  and  foot,  and  then  put  them  to  death  by  the  sword,  or  by  crucifix- 
ion, or  he  may  kill  them  at  once  without  inflicting  amputation.  If  any 
one  among  a  band  of  robbers  be  guilty  of  murder,  the  punishment  of 
death  must  be  inflicted  upon  the  whole  band. 

EXECUTION. 

The  Muhammadan  mode  of  execution  is  as  follows : — The  execu- 
tioner seizes  the  condemned  culprit  by  the  right  hand,  while  with  a  sharp 
sword  or  ax  he  aims  a  blow  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  and  the  head  is 
detached  at  the  first  stroke.  This  mode  of  execution  is  .still,  or  was  till 
lately,  practiced  in  Muhammandan  states  in  India. 

If  an  Oazi  say,  "I  have  sentenced  such  a  person  to  be  stoned,  or  to 
have  his  hand  cut  of,  or  to  be  killed,  do  you  therefore  do  it  ;"  it  is  lawful 
for  that  person  to  whom  the  Oazi  has  given  the  order  to  carry  it  out. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


119 


And  according  to  Abu  Hanifah,  if  the  Oazi  order  the  executioner 
to  cut  off  the  right  hand,  and  the  executioner  willfully  cut  off  the  left,  he 
is  not  liable  to  punishment.    But  other  doctors  do  not  agree  with  him. 

The  modes  of  execution  used  by  the  Persian  Government  are  still 
barbarous  in  the  extreme.  Male  convicts  are  put  to  death  either  by  being 
blown  from  the  mouth  of  a  cannon,  or  by  having  their  jugular  arteries 
severed,  or  by  being  nailed  to  a  wall.  Women  are  sentenced  to  have 
their  heads  shaved,  their  faces  blackened,  then  to  take  a  bare  back  ride 
on  a  donkey  through  the  principal  streets  of  a  city  or  village,  and  finally 
to  be  put  into  a  bag  and  beaten  to  death.  Others  are  executed  by  put- 
ting them  in  a  nude  condition  into  a  bag  full  of  cats,  who  will  speedily 
scratch  and  bite  them  to  death. 

Any  prince  of  the  royal  family  has  authority  to  pass  the  death  sen- 
tence upon  his  subjects.  When  occasionally  an  intimate  friend  of  the 
ruler  is  appointed  governor,  the  king  will  add  a  knife  as  a  present,  trans- 
mitting thereby  the  power  of  passing  the  death  sentence.  Every  prince, 
mayor  or  governor  having  this  authority  keeps  two  executioners,  uni- 
formed in  scarlet  walking  on  before  their  master  whenever  he  promenades 
through  the  streets. 

Whenever  a  convict  is  to  be  executed,  he  is  taken  from  his  prison 
cell  handcuffed  and  a  chain  about  his  neck,  escorted  by  a  guard  of  sol- 
diers with  fixed  bayonets.  He  has  probably  spent  several  months  in  his 
dungeon,  and  naturally  looks  haggard  and  worn,  unclean  and  unshaven, 
his  clothes  hanging  about  him  in  rags.  The  executioner,  in  his  scarlet 
uniform,  walks  a  few  steps  in  advance,  a  large  sharp  knife  in  his  hand. 
Thus  they  proceed  to  the  public  square,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  crowd 
of  eager  spectators  the  victim  is  ordered  to  kneel  down.  The  execu- 
tioner now  steps  behind  the  convict  and  with  a  single  stroke  of  the  keen 
blade  severs  the  jugular  vein,  and  another  soul  takes  its  flight,  having 
completed  its  part  in  life's  drama.  In  some  places  criminals  are  executed 
by  burying  their  whole  body,  their  head  only  excepted,  in  a  casket  of  ce- 
ment; this  will  soon  set  and  harden  around  the  body,  and  soon  cause 
death. 

An  intoxicated  Mohammedan,  when  found  on  the  street  noisy  and 
abusive,  is  arrested,  a  cord  or  twine  several  feet  long  is  drawn  through 
the  dividing  membrane  between  his  nostrils,  and  he  is  led  publicly  along 
the  street  by  the  executioner.  The  culprit  soon  gets  sober,  and  is  very 


120 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


much  ashamed.  As  the  executioner  passes  along  the  streets  with  him, 
shopkeepers  give  small  sums  of  money  to  the  former. 

Men  of  a  very  quarrelsome  and  combative  disposition  are  punished 
by  having  their  feet  tied  to  a  post  with  the  bare  soles  upward.  These 
are  then  whipped  until  they  bleed  profusely,  and  sometimes  the  nails 
are  torn  from  the  toes.  This  frequently  causes  the  victim  to  swoon  away, 
becoming  entirely  unconscious  under  this  terrible  maltreatment. 

Christians  and  Jews  according  to  Persian  law  are  not  subject  to 
decapitation,  as  they  are  considered  unclean  by  the  Mohammedans  and 
not  sufficiently  worthy  of  this  privilege.  The  most  severe  punishment  is 
when  a  prince  is  deprived  of  his  eyesight.  Lords  and  counts  are  executed 
in  two  ways :  the  Shah  will  send  him  a  bottle  of  sherbet,  which  is  a  sweet 
drink,  but  in  this  instance  contains  a  deadly  poison,  and  which  he  is  com- 
pelled to  empty ;  or  the  governor  dispatches  a  servant  to  wait  upon  the 
criminal  while  taking  his  bath,  and  in  doing  so  has  orders  to  cut  the 
veins  in  the  criminal's  arms  and  cause  him  to  bleed  to  death. 

What  a  contrast  in  the  modes  of  punishment  and  their  application 
between  Mohammedan  and  Christian  countries !  The  kind  of  punish- 
ment inflicted  on  criminals  in  any  country  is  truly  characteristic  of  the 
prevailing  religion.  A  religion  based  upon  love  and  charity  will  deal 
with  its  criminals  effectively,  but  humanely  and  not  in  a  barbarous  man- 
ner. 

BASTINADO. 

The  mechanical  part  of  a  bastinado  is  a  pole,  called  a  "Pellek," 
about  eight  feet  in  length,  with  a  transverse  handle  at  either  end  and 
loops  of  rope  or  leather  in  the  middle.  The  man  to  be  bastinadoed  is 
laid  back  downward  on  the  ground  and,  after  his  shoes  and  stockings 
are  removed,  his  feet  are  passed  through  the  loops.  The  pole  is  held 
by  two  soldiers  at  nearly  the  length  of  the  man's  legs  from  the  ground, 
and  by  them  it  is  turned  until  his  ankles  are  so  tightly  secured  that  he 
cannot  writhe  out  of  them.  In  turning  the  pole  the  soles  of  the  feet  are 
brought  upward,  making  them  a  fair  mark  for  the  flogger.  Close  by 
will  be  a  large  number  (usually  hundreds)  of  sticks  with  which  the  vic- 
tim's feet  are  to  be  beaten.  They  are  ordinary  willow  wands  five  or  six 
feet  long.  The  bark  is  left  on,  and  the  willows  are  kept  wet  to  prevent 
them  from  breaking  easily.  Two  or  more  expert  floggers,  clad  in  scarlet 
coats,  bound  in  black,  the  uniform  of  the  Shah's  executioners,  take  their 
places  near  the  pole,  each  armed  with  a  stick  with  which  they  in  turn  be- 
labor the  victim's  soles  until  the  stick  is  broken.  Before  the  thrashing  is 


131 


1  82 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


commenced  the  victim  is  adjured  to  confess.  If  he  does  not  the  torture  is 
kept  up  until  he  does,  or  until  the  supply  of  sticks  gives  out.  Ofter  200  or 
300  sticks  are  worn  out  before  a  confession  is  secured,  although  the  tor- 
ture often  results  in  death,  if  the  victim  is  aged  or  sick.  All  Persians  are 
liable  to  this  punishment,  from  the  prime  minister  downward.  The  minis- 
ter of  finances  was  on  one  occasion  given  400  lashes. 

The  bastinado  is  by  no  means  the  only  mode  of  torture  used  in 
Persia  to  make  criminals  confess.  Needles  are  run  under  the  finger-nails 
of  some  prisoners  until  a  confession  is  extorted,  and  it  is  a  practice  to  cut 
gashes  in  the  soles  of  a  prisoner's  feet,  inserting  therein  broken  glass, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  run  away.  Such  punishments  have 
been  in  vogue  for  ages,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  late  Shah  years 
ago  issued  a  firman  prohibiting  the1  torture  of  criminals. 

DISFIGURING  EVIL-DOERS. 

For  ordinary  crimes  in  Persia,  the  punishment  is  personal  disfigure- 
ment. The  evil-doer  who  is  caught  in  his  evil-doing  is  marked  for  life. 
For  the  first  offense  at  highway  robbery,  the  prisoner  may  lose  some 
of  his  fingers.  For  a  second  offense  he  is  likely  to  lose  a  hand.  The 
traveler  passing  through  Persia  for  the  first  time  is  astonished  at  the 
number  of  mained  and  half-blind  men  whom  he  meets  on  the  caravan 
trails.  The  writer  has  seen  one  man  in  Persia  who,  as  a  result  of  per- 
sistent wrong-doing,  had  lost  a  hand,  a  foot,  an  ear  and  an  eye.  With 
all  that  he  was  pointed  out  as  a  person  to  be  avoided. 

Apart  from  the  affliction  of  pain  as  a  means  of  extorting  confessions, 
there  is  another  well-defined  reason  for  the  torture  of  criminals.  It  is 
intended  that  corporal  punishment  shall  be  a  warning  and  an  example 
to  other  evil-doers.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  severed  hands,  fingers 
and  ears  of  convicted  men  are  thrown  into  one  of  the  principal  streets 
to  horrify  men  going  about  the  ordinary  affairs  of  business. 

HOW  THE  HEADS  ARE  CUT  OFF. 

Decapitation  in  Persia  has  lost  some  of  its  old-time  picturesqueness. 
In  thinking  of  a  decapitation,  one  naturally  pictures  a  scene  in  which  the 
executioner,  posed  in  a  theatrical  attitude,  swings  aloft  a  glittering  scime- 
tar,  and  with  "one  well-directed  blow"  strikes  off  the  victim's  head.  In 
Persia  to-day  one  finds  that  sort  of  thing  only  in  picture  books  imported 
from  the  Christian  west.  As  a  matter  of  prosaic  fact,  the  victim's  head 
is  hacked  off  with  a  short  knife.  To  be  even  more  exact,  the  head  is 
very  rarely  actually  hacked  off.     Usually  the  executioner  is  satisfied 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


123 


with  hacking  open  two  or  three  large  veins  of  the  throat,  and  letting  his 
man  bleed  to  death.  The  traveler  loses  a  great  many  illusions  in  a  jour- 
ney through  Persia,  and  this  is  one  of  them. 

CLIMATE  AND  PRODUCTS. 

The  great  extent  of  the  country  naturally  implies  an  extremely  varied 
climate.  Cyrus  the  Great  made  this  remark  regarding  the  climate  of 
his  empire :  "The  people  perish  with  cold  at  one  extremity,  while  they 
are  suffocating  with  heat  at  the  other. 

Persia  may  be  considered  to  possess  three  climates :  that  of  south- 
ern Dashtistan,  one  of  the  elevated  plateau,  and  a  third  of  the  Caspian 
provinces.  The  spring  and  fall  of  the  year  are  rainy  seasons,  but  perfectly 
beautiful,  while  the  summers  are  long,  dry  and  hot,  but  not  unpleasantly 
so  excepting  at  midday.  The  atmosphere  is  clear  and  pure  at  all  times. 

The  cultivated  soil  of  Persia,  wherever  there  is  an  abundance  of  rain 
or  possibility  of  irrigation,  produces  an  immense  variety  of  crops.  The  best 
wheat  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  is  grown  here,  other  characteristic 
products  being  barley,  rice,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  millet,  potatoes, 
sweet  corn,  cabbage,  and  all  other  garden  vegetables  found  in  other 
countries. 

Great  care  has  been  taken  to  have  brooks  and  streams,  whether 
natural  or  artificial  for  the  purpose  of  irrigating  the  land,  lined  on  both 
sides  with  shade  trees.  This  is  most  especially  the  case  in  Oroomiah 
Plain,  so  that  this  part  of  Persia  has  been  named  by  travelers  the  Para- 
dise of  Persia.  Wooded  lands  are  found  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
one  large  forest  in  the  vicinity  of  Shiraz.  These  forests  are  of  very  dense 
growth  and  contain  oak,  beech,  elm,  walnut,  sycamore,  ash,  yew  and 
juniper  trees. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Persia  is  as  yet  undeveloped,  excepting  some 
modest  efforts  in  coal,  copper,  iron  and  lead  mining.  The  forests  of  the 
Elburz  Mountains  are  infested  with  wild  animals,  such  as  wolves,  tigers, 
jackals,  wild  boars,  foxes,  and  the  Caspian  cat.  Deer  of  every  variety 
inhabit  some  of  the  mountains ;  lions  and  leopards  are  found  in  Mazan- 
daron.  Among  the  domestic  animals  are  the  horse,  camel,  buffalo,  cow, 
ass,  donkey,  mule,  sheep,  dog,  cat,  etc.  Persia  is  the  home  of  the  famous 
fat-tail  sheep  and  produces  also  the  much  coveted  lamb  fur  worn  by 
ladies  and  called  the  Persian  fur.  Here  also  are  found  fine  Arabian 
horses  which  may  be  termed  the  Oriental  limited  passenger  trains  or 
flyers,  while  the  donkeys,  mules  and  camels  perform  in  the  east  the 
functions  of  western  freight  lines.    Persian  horses  have  always  been 


124 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


celebrated  as  the  finest  in  the  east ;  they  are  larger  and  more  handsome 
but  not  so  fleet  as  those  of  Arabia.  Sheep  are  one  of  the  main  sources 
of  wealth  in  the  country. 

Among  the  flowers  in  Persia  are  the  marigold,  hollyhock,  white  lily, 
violet,  tulip,  chrysanthemum  and  roses  of  many  kinds.  The  latter  are 
cultivated  in  fields  for  the  trade  and  the  manufacture  of  "golab"  or  attar 
of  roses. 

Poultry  is  good  and  plentiful.  There  are  fowls,  geese,  ducks, 
turkeys,  guineas,  partridges,  quails,  doves,  pheasants,  as  well  as  hawks, 
flamingoes,  crows,  swans,  storks,  herrons,  owls,  cuckoos,  hoo-poes  and 
bul-buls  or  nightingales. 

We  find  various  views  as  to  the  location  of  the  Garden  of  Eden. 
The  latest  and  wildest  theory  is  its  location  at  the  north  pole,  upon  the 
assumption  that  in  the  lapse  of  ages  the  earth  has  gradually  cooled  so 
that  the  first  suitable  place  for  man  to  live  was  in  the  Arctic  Zone. 

Persia,  however,  has  the  earliest  and  most  reasonable  of  all  claims. 
Our  land  is  a  natural  center.  The  Tigris,  Euphrates  and  other  rivers 
of  the  Paradise  of  Eden  still  flow  and  the  identity  of  these  streams  alone 
should  banish  all  doubt.  The  very  odors  of  the  forest  are  of  singular 
fragrance.  Here  bloom  indigenous  plants  of  great  variety  and  hue, 
which  refuse  to  lend  their  beauty  and  fragrance  to  any  foreign  clime. 
Numerous  birds,  too,  of  peculiar  beauty,  adorn  and  enliven  the  enchant- 
ing landscapes.  The  number  of  various  kinds  of  birds,  which  breed  on 
the  great  plain,  is  so  prodigious  as  to  seem  almost  incredible  to  those 
who  have  not  seen  them.  Do  not  all  these  natural  and  scenic  character- 
istics bear  evidence  of  these  primitive  ages? 

From  the  plateau  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ararat  arise  the  sources  of 
the  rivers  of  Western  Asia.  The  Tigris,  the  Euphrates,  the  Aras  or 
Araxes,  the  Cyrus  (Kur),  the  Acampis  and  the  Halys.  The  first  two 
with  deep  and  rapid  waters  flow  southeast  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
Acampis,  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  Pison  of  the  Bible,  rising  from  the 
southwest  of  Erzrum  and  fed  by  various  streamlets,  sweeps  with  a  strong 
and  smooth  current  toward  the  Black  Sea.  The  Araxes  (perhaps  the 
Gihon  of  the  Bible),  takes  its  rise  from  the  side  of  Bingol  or  "the  mount- 
ain of  one  thousand  lakes"  winds  through  fertile  regions  and  mingles 
with  the  Cyrus ;  and  then  both  sweeping  northward  and  again  southward 
through  the  plain  of  Moghan,  discharge  eastward  into  the  Caspian  Sea 
by  three  mouths,  being  navigable  up  to  the  point  of  junction.  The  name 
of  the  river  is  supposed  to  commemorate  Araxes,  whose  son  was  drowned 
in  the  rapid  waters.    Xenophon,  however,  traces  its  derivation  to  Ar-ax, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS.  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


125 


or  "holy  water"  its  water  being  sacred  to  the  sun.  This  stream  possessed 
different  names  at  different  periods,  commemorative  of  various  events. 
The  Halys,  or  the  modern  "Kizil-Irmak  is  the  most  westerly  of  the 
rivers.  It  springs  from  a  verdant  region  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
Euphrates  and  flows  with  rapid  volume  into  the  Black  Sea. 

The  volcanic  soil  of  the  country  is  of  surpassing  fertility,  and  yields 
abundant  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  apricot,  maize,  tobacco,  rice  and  other 
minor  products.  Here  are  raised  also  the  mulberry,  cotton,  grapes  and 
a  dye  called  yellow-berry.  Beautiful  vineyards,  smiling  gardens,  orchards 
and  groves  abound  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the 
valleys,  where  luxuriant  vegetation  gladdens  the  heart  of  the  lover  of 
nature.  Melons,  figs,  granates,  and  trees  of  oak,  pine,  ash,  walnut,  apple, 
peach  and  chestnut  abound. 

Mineral  springs,  both  hot  and  cold,  abound.  In  my  travels  through 
the  country  I  have  seen  many  of  them  gushing  from  the  ground  with 
great  force  from  between  the  strata  of  limestone.  These  hot  springs 
are  another  evidence  of  the  subterranean  activity  of  the  region.  From 
all  over  the  country  people  who  suffer  from  any  ailment  repair  to  these 
waters,  whose  medicinal  properties  are  of  great  reputation. 

MOUNT  ARARAT. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  Mount  Ararat  is  the  nucleus  of  the  river 
and  mountain  systems,  standing  high  and  hoar  midway  between  the 
Black  and  Caspian  seas.  It  is  the  center  of  the  world.  It  is  a  mountain 
rich  with  events  of  undying  significance  to  mankind.  Around  its  base 
legends  and  traditions,  true  and  fabulous,  hold  perpetual  sway.  Today 
it  is  a  mighty  boundary  stone  of  three  great  empires — the  Turkish,  Rus- 
sian and  Persian.  It  has  two  summits,  seven  miles  apart,  the  greater  at 
the  northwest  extremity  and  the  lesser  toward  the  southeast.  The 
snow-clad  summit  of  the  greater  Ararat  is  wrapped  in  clouds  during 
most  of  the  day.  These  float  away  at  nightfall  and  leave  the  snowy 
crown  clear  and  distinct  against  the  starry  sky.  A  more  rugged  and  awe 
inspiring  view  is  obtained  from  the  northeast  than  from  any  other  point. 

No  one  can  do  Ararat  justice ;  every  turn  gives  a  new  picture.  Its 
beauty  is  unrivaled  by  any  other  mountain  on  earth.  It  is  truly  "the 
sublimest  object  in  nature."  Its  snow  crowned  peak,  rising  from  the 
plain  of  Araxes,  rears  itself  in  solemn  majesty  above  the  sea  of  vapor 
into  the  regions  of  eternal  winter,  perpetually  covered  with  ice  and 
snow,  and  ruling  over  the  clouds  and  the  storms.  It  is  a  picture  of 
mingled  sublimity  and  beauty— calm,  cold,  majestic. 


126 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


One  is  filled  with  awe  as  he  watches  the  mellow  radiance  of  the 
moon,  the  changing  hues  and  shadows  of  the  venerable  mountain,  or 
hears  the  thundering  sound  of  falling  ice  and  rocks  from  its  stupendous 
heights.  The  mass  of  snow  on  its  summit,  14,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
never  dissolves,  and  is  one  of  the  phenomenal  features  of  this  mountain, 
exceeding  in  quantity  that  of  either  the  Alps  or  the  Caucasus,  as  the 
former  average  9,000  feet  and  the  latter  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet  in 
height.  The  people  consider  the  ascent  of  Ararat  a  miracle.  They  re- 
gard the  mountain  with  superstitious  awe,  and  believe  that  it  still  contains 
the  relics  of  the  ark,  unchanged  by  time  or  decay,  and  that  in  order  to 
insure  their  preservation  a  divine  decree  has  made  it  inaccessible  to 
mortal  approach.  The  Tartars  and  the  Turks  of  the  neighborhood 
imagine  its  summit  to  be  the  abode  of  the  "devil"  and  of  wild  ghosts, 
and  they  fear  to  approach  too  near  its  top.  Morier  himself  declares  "No 
one  appears  to  have  reached  the  summit  of  Ararat  since  the  Flood." 
However,  Dr.  Friedrich  Parrot  of  the  University  of  Dorpat,  after  sev- 
eral unsuccessful  attempts,  finally  gained  the  summit  in  September,  1829. 
He  is  considered  the  first  mortal  since  the  Deluge,  who  has  ever  ven- 
tured amid  the  ice  and  snow  of  the  isolated  peak. 

The  term  Ararat  is  used  in  ancient  annals  of  sacred  and  secular  his- 
tory for  the  entire  country  of  Armenia,  and  not  for  the  mountain  itself. 
Anciently  even  the  inhabitants  were  known  as  the  people  of  Ararat.  It 
was  not  until  late  years  that  the  name  came  to  be  limited  to  the  mountain 
itself.  This  misunderstanding  has  led  some  to  erroneous  conclusions 
and  superstitions.  Nothing  could  be  more  absurd  to  a  native  than  the 
idea  that  the  ark  rested  on  the  very  top  of  Mount  Ararat. 

Many  criticisms,  have  been  made  concerning  the  ark  on  Mount 
Ararat,  as  though  that  historic  craft  had  actually  rested  on  its  very 
peak.  Such  absurd  ideas  indicate  a  lack  not  only  of  knowledge,  but  of  a 
proper  and  common-sense  understanding  of  a  simple  biblical  narrative. 
The  geographical  unit  is  the  mountain  range,  and  with  the  mountain 
ranges  the  study  of  geography  should  begin.  From  them  a  scientific 
nomenclature  can  most  easily  be  constructed.  How  precise  and  clear 
is  the  statement  of  the  Book  of  Genesis :  "The  ark  rested  upon  the  moun- 
tains of  Ararat" — not  upon  Mount  Ararat.  There  are  scriptural  refer- 
ences in  2  Kings  xix:37;  Isaiah  xxxvii:38.  In  these  parallel  passages 
allusion  is  made  to  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer,  who,  having  assassinated 
their  father  Sennacherib,  "escaped  into  the  land  of  Ararat."  The  prophet 
Jeremiah  (in  Jeremiah  ii  127),  summoning  the  nations  for  the  overthrow 
of  Babylon,  calls  "together  against  her  the  kingdoms  of  Ararat,  Minni, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE.  127 


and  Ashchenaz."  Thus  sacred  and  secular  writers  concur  in  speaking 
of  not  only  a  mountain,  but  of  a  range,  a  land,  a  kingdom,  an  army,  and 
a  people  of  "Ararat."  Does  the  critic  suppose  that  the  horses  and  mules 
of  Ararat  were  reared  on  the  icebergs  of  an  isolated  peak?  They  were 
seen  in  the  markets  of  Syria.  Had  they  wings  that  they  could  fly  where 
a  donkey  could  not  climb  ?  An  army  of  Araratians  helped  Cyrus  in  the 
overthrow  of  Babylon.  Did  they_  come  on  a  toboggan  slide  from  the 
regions  of  everlasting  snow? 

"Ayrarad,"  coincides  with  the  Persian  text,  which  is  frequently  em- 
ployed in  ancient  historical  documents,  denoting  that  the  name  Ararat 
was  identical  with  the  whole  country  of  that  region.  St.  Jerome  himself 
always  identified  Ararat  with  the  plain  of  Araxes,  where  the  mountain 
reposes. 

Again,  the  window  of  the  ark  is  described  in  Genesis  as  being  above ; 
so  that  when  "on  the  first  day  of  the  tenth  month  the  top  of  the  moun- 
tains came  forth ;"  Noah  would  most  naturally  have  been  looking  upward 
to  see  what  was  above  the  ark.  Therefore,  the  extreme  cone,  the  highest 
pinacle  of  Ararat,  was  not  the  resting  place  of  the  deluvian  ark,  but  in 
all  probability  a  much  lower  part  of  the  Ararat  range. 

WINES  OF  PERSIA. 

The  wines  of  Persia  are  red  and  white ;  the  former  has  a  body  and 
flavor  resembling  burgundy,  and  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  north  of  Persia. 
The  best  white  wines  are  those  of  Shiraz  and  Hamadan ;  each  has  a  dis- 
tinct and  delicious  flavor  and  bouquet  of  its  own.  These  wines  are  made 
by  the  Armenians,  Nestorians  and  Jews,  for  the  Faithful  are  forbidden 
either  to  drink  or  to  make  wine.  They  have  ways  of  evading  the  former 
prohibition,  but  the  latter  ordinance  is  more  difficult  of  evasion  and  prac- 
tically carries  with  it  the  prohibition  of  commerce  in  wines,  yet  this  diffi- 
culty might  easily  be  overcome  by  a  little  quiet  diplomacy,  as  I  have  good 
reason  for  believing.  But  the  manufacture  of  Persian  wines  leaves  much 
to  be  desired.  I  am  convinced,  however,  that  if  European  experts,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  low  cost  of  labor  in  Persia,  should  go  to  that 
country  and  seriously  enter  into  the  task  of  preparing  and  exporting 
Persian  wines,  Persia  would  soon  rank  among  the  great  wine-producing 
countries  of  the  world 

Mohammedan  followers  are  not  to  salute  those  who  drink,  nor  to 
marry  those  who  are  intemperate,  nor  to  sit  at  the  table  where  there  is 
wine.  Some  one  asked  AH  how  strict  they  should  be  regarding  strong 
drink.    Ali  answered  that  if  one  drop  of  wine  should  fall  in  a  well  and 


128 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  well  should  be  filled  up  with  earth  and  after  a  hundred  years  had 
passed  away  a  sheep  should  eat  grass  growing  on  that  spot,  he,  Ali, 
would  not  eat  of  that  flock.  Again,  Ali,  the  son-in-law  and  cousin  of 
Mohammed,  said  that  if  there  was  a  caravan  of  camels  reaching  from 
the  north  pole  to  the  south  pole  and  the  last  camel  in  the  caravan  should 
have  wine  on  his  back,  that  he,  Ali,  would  not  take  hold  of  the  bit  of  the 
head  camel.  Mohammed  said  that  in  hell  there  is  a  valley  in  which  there 
burn  1,000  loads  of  wood  every  day;  there  is  a  house  in  that  valley  and 
in  that  house  a  box,  and  in  that  box  there  is  a  fiery  snake  which  has  100 
heads  and  every  head  has  100  mouths  and  every  mouth  has  100  teeth  and 
every  tooth  has  100  stingers  and  every  stinger  has  100  poisons.  The 


CULTIVATING  THE  VINEYARD. 

people  asked  Mohammed :  "Who  will  be  punished  there  ?"  and  he  an- 
swered: "Those  who  are  intemperate."  They  classed  the  Jews  as  an 
inferior  people,  yet  Mohammed  said  that  it  was  easier  for  a  Jew  to  enter 
Heaven  than  for  a  person  who  drank  wine.  If  a  person  drinks  wine  at 
night,  God  will  look  upon  him  with  his  bad  eye*  until  morning ;  also  his 
prayer  will  not  be  heard  for  forty  days  and  forty  nights.  But  lately  the 
opium  has  been  introduced  in  all  parts  of  Persia,  whereas  the  Moham- 
medans are  becoming  more  slaves  of  it. 

*The  Mohammedans  believe  that  God  has  two  eyes,  one  good  the 
other  evil,  that  with  the  good  eye  he  watches  over  the  Mohammedans, 
with  the  evil  eye  over  the  Christian  and  all  non-Mohammedans. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


129 


Drunkenness  (Shurb)  denotes  the  state  of  a  person  who  has  taken 
intoxicating  liquor,  whilst  sukr  implies  a  state  of  drunkenness.  Wine 
of  any  kind  being  strictly  forbidden  by  the  Muslim  law,  no  distinction  is 
made  in  the  punishment  of  a  wine-drinker  and  a  drunkard.  If  a  Muslim 
drink  wine,  and  two  witnesses  testify  to  his  having  done  so,  or  if  his 
breath  smell  of  wine,  or  if  he  shall  himself  confess  of  having  taken  wine, 
or  if  he  be  found  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  he  shall  be  beaten  with  eighty 
stripes,  or,  in  the  case  of  a  slave,  with  forty  stripes. 

THE  CONDITION  AND  NEEDS  OF  PERSIA. 

Persia  in  the  past  has  been  the  scene  of  great  historic  advents. 
As  a  land  of  Oriental  splendor  it  has  appealed  to  the  imagination  of 
the  Western  world.  Persia  to-day  suffers  by  the  contrast.  Though  much 
reduced  in  territory,  it  is  still  an  extensive  domain.  Notwithstanding  the 
wide  extend  of  territory  and  the  variety  of  climate  possessed  by  Persia 
it  has  been  for  some  centuries  in  a  state  of  weakness.  It  is  but  a  shadow 
of  the  Persia  of  the  past.  Its  population  is  small  and  sparse.  Even  its 
most  fertile  plains  have  no  such  diversity  of  population  as  is  found  in 
India  or  China.  The  total  population  is  estimated  at  ten  millions,  of 
whom  two  millions  are  nomads.  The  cultivated  parts  of  Persia  are  rich 
and  productive.  When  irrigated  it  is  only  necessary  to  tickle  the  soil 
with  a  hoe  and  it  will  laugh  into  harvest.  Its  wheat  has  been  pronounced 
the  best  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  It  produces  also  rice,  barley,  millet, 
and  maize.  Its  gardens  are  famous.  Its  grapes  and  peaches  are  most 
delicious,  and  are  on  the  average  better  than  any  I  have  known.  Grapes 
in  a  bunch  are  hung  in  a  dry  place  and  kept  until  March. 

The  other  fruits  largely  cultivated  are  the  apricot,  nectarine,  almond, 
pear,  pomegranate,  orange,  lemon,  mulberry,  melons,  and  the  fig,  all 
of  which  are  of  good  quality,  while  the  cherry,  apple,  plum  are  of 
inferior  flavor. 

The  sunflower  seeds  are  used  for  food  on  the  Caspian  coast.  Nuts 
and  berries  grow  wild  in  the  forests.  Excellent  honey  is  abundant. 
Most  of  the  common  garden  vegetables  are  now  cultivated  and  a  great 
variety  of  herbs  are  used. 

Tobacco  and  opium  are  extensively  grown.  Cotton  is  a  good  crop 
and  it  is  stated  that  enough  cotton  could  be  raised  in  Persia  to  supply 
the  markets  of  Western  Europe.  Flowers,  both  wild  and  cultivated, 
flourish  in  great  beauty  and  variety.  The  domestic  and  wild  animals 
of  the  temperate  zone  are  also  found  in  Persia.    Trout  is  abundant  in 


L30 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


mountain  streams  and  salmon  and  other  fish  provide  a  profitable  industry 
in  the  tributaries  of  the  Caspian. 

A  country  with  such  a  climate  and  soil,  and  perfecting  such  products, 
certainly  has  capability.  The  uncultivated  portion  of  Persia  is  desert, 
much  the  same  as  Colorado  and  California  once  were.  Only  irrigation 
is  necessary  to  produce  abundant  fertility.  Nor  is  Persia  lacking  in 
mineral  resources.  These  are  as  yet  largely  undeveloped,  but  coal,  iron, 
lead,  copper,  arsenic,  mercury,  sulphur,  asbestos,  mica,  marble,  and 
manganese  are  found,  and  some  of  them  are  at  present  being  mined. 
Gold  dust  is  found  in  the  Jagatia  River,  and  in  the  naphtha  springs  near 
Bushire.  The  pearl  fisheries  of  the  Persian  gulf  are  very  productive, 
while  the  turquoise  mines  of  Khorasan  are  pronounced  the  richest  in 
the  world. 

The  present  inhabitants  of  Persia,  like  those  of  Europe,  have  the 
advantage  of  the  mixture  of  blood.  Over  the  lands  of  the  Medes  and 
Persians  and  Parthians  have  swept  Arabs,  Seljukes,  Turkomans,  Mon- 
gols, and  Turks  in  their  successive  incursions  and  conquests.  Iran  and 
Turan  have  been  commingled.  The  last  hordes  from  the  steppes  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  have  left  the  most  distinct  mark  and  retain  the  ascendency, 
the  ruling  Kajar  dynasty  being  of  Tartar-Turkish  extraction.  The  pres- 
ent people  is  the  resultant  of  the  fusion  of  these  many  elements  through 
a  long  series  of  years.  Their  physiognomy  is  a  mixed  one.  Just  as  the 
Osmanlis  have  been  improved  in  beauty  by  the  mixture  of  Georgians 
and  Circassians,  so  the  Tartar-Turks  of  Northern  Persia  have  been  re- 
fined by  admixture  with  the  Persians. 

In  color  they  are  slightly  darker  than  Anglo-Saxons,  of  medium 
height,  with  prominent  nose,  but  on  the  whole,  agreeable  features. 

Famine  and  earthquake  have  had  some  effects  in  keeping  downline 
population  of  Persia.  One  urgent  need  is  the  development  of  internal 
improvements.  The  country  must  be  thoroughly  irrigated.  Occasion- 
ally a  summer  cloud-burst  will  cause  a  flood  to  pour  through  the  village 
streets  and  into  the  yards,  carrying  off  the  sheep  and  throwing  down 
the  walls. 

Again,  the  development  of  Persia  depends  upon  certain  political  re- 
forms being  accomplished.  Official  corruption  is  universally  prevalent. 
Governors,  judges  and  minor  officials  now  must  give  presents  to  obtain 
their  appointments  and  to  retain  their  posts  year  by  year.  They  have  no 
fixed  salaries  and  consequently  live  by  fees  from  litigants  and  even  crim- 
inals, and  otherwise  reimburse  themselves.  The  expenses  of  governors 
are  greatly  increased  by  custom.  Their  establishments  must  be  on  a 
grand  scale  and  at  their  own  expense.  A  great  retinue  and  large  stables 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


131 


are  needed  to  maintain  the  customary  pomp.  They  must  provide  lavish 
entertainments  daily  for  many  persons.  Persia  would  be  highly  benefited 
by  a  codification  of  the  civil  law  with  a  definite  code  of  punishment.  Too 
much  is  left  to  the  power  of  the  governor,  who  is  both  governor  and 
judge.  According  to  his  state  of  digestion  the  decision  may  be  death  or 
release. 

PRODUCTS  AND  METHODS  OF  DISPOSING  OF  THEM. 

Dates,  figs,  pomegranates,  peaches,  apples,  pears,  plums,  apricots, 
grapes,  and  nuts  grow  in  abundance  in  Persia.  The  first  grapes  or  fruit 
of  any  kind  that  ripens  is  taken  by  the  gardener  or  servant  to  his  master 
as  a  gift,  whereupon  his  master  gives  him  a  present,  saying,  "May  the 
Almighty  bless  you  and  make  you  attain  the  first  fruits  that  you  desire.'' 
The  first  fruits  are  emblematic  of  new  life. 

In  the  grocery  stores  may  be  found  honey,  molasses,  cheese,  butter, 
oil,  clabber,  peas,  beans,  and  rice,  together  with  all  the  fruits  before  men- 
tioned, but  no  canned  goods.  All  such  stores  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
Mohammedans  because  Christians  are  an  abomination  of  them  so  they 
will  not  buy  any  liquids  handled  by  Christians.  Should  a  man  go  to  a 
shopkeeper  early  in  the  morning  to  buy  something  that  cost  only  a  few 
cents,  the  shopkeeper  will  refuse  to  take  his  copper  money  because  he 
believes  that  if  he  should  take  copper  money  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
day  he  would  have  bad  luck  all  day.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  should  be 
offered  silver  money  early  in  the  morning,  he  would  be  very  happy 
because  he  believes  that  it  will  bring  him  good  luck  all  day. 

In  the  western  provinces  of  Persia,  about  forty  different  kinds  of 
the  best  grapes  grow,  but  they  are  not  quite  equal  to  the  grapes  that 
grow  along  some  parts  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valleys.  The  grapes, 
figs,  and  dates  that  grow  there  are  not  equaled  anywhere.  The  best  kinds 
of  honey  are  also  exported  from  these  valleys  to  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and  are  used  for  medicines,  but  unfortunately  this  interesting  land  that 
served  as  the  cradle  of  the  human  race  and  from  which  the  good  tidings 
of  salvation  and  peace  through  Christ  has  spread  all  over  the  world  is 
now  in  the  hands  of  the  terrible  Turk,  who  sends  out  curses  instead  of 
blessings.  Fine  grapes  grow  in  most  parts  of  Persia,  but  they  cannot 
be  exported  fresh  because  there  are  no  railroads.  They  can  be  carried 
for  about  forty  miles  on  horseback,  but  when  they  have  been  thus  car- 
ried they  soon  spoil.  From  grapes  they  make  both  wine  and  molasses, 
but  the  most  of  them  are  dried,  making  raisins.  They  cover  a  terrace 
or  side  hill  with  plaster  made  of  clay  mixed  with  chaff  and  upon  this  they 


132 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


spread  the  ripe  grapes  to  dry  in  the  bright  sunshine.  When  dry  they 
export  them  by  means  of  caravans  to  Russia.  When  persons  are  gath- 
ering grapes,  the  passers  by  greet  them  by  saying,  "May  God  give  you 
blessings  in  your  vineyard."  When  they  pass  by  a  man  who  is  plowing 
they  say,  "May  God  give  you  strength."  To  both  these  greetings  the 
laborers  reply,  "Welcome"  or  "Thank  you."  They  raise  very  good  wheat, 
barley,  and  millet.  In  order  to  tell  if  their  wheat  is  good  any  year,  they 
chew  a  few  grains  to  see  if  it  expands  and  becomes  elastic.  If  so  it  is 
good  wheat  and  dough  made  from  it  will  also  expand  and  rise  nicely. 
But  if  it  does  not  expand  when  chewed  it  is  poor  wheat. 

Watermelons  and  muskmelons  are  also  raised  there,  but  they  re- 
quire a  great  deal  of  work.  When  a  muskmelon  is  about  twice  the 
size  of  an  egg,  they  bury  it  while  it  is  still  on  the  vine.  By  and  by  it 
grows  so  as  to  come  on  the  surface  again  and  is  again  buried  and  so  on 
until  it  stops  growing.  They  then  lay  it  in  the  sun  until  it  gets  sweet 
and  ready  to  be  eaten. 

The  raw  silk  of  Persia  is  divisible  into  three  qualities.  First  is  the 
Abn'sbor — that  is,  silk  of  a  super  excellent  grade;  second  is  the  Gunuk; 
third  is  the  Las.  The  first  quality  is  divided  into  different  numbers,  ac- 
cording to  fineness  of  texture,  gloss,  or  color. 

The  carpet  trade  of  Persia  is  scarcely  less  important  than  the  silk 
trade.  Its  leading  features  are  doubtless  so  widely  known,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  so  many  Persian  rugs  have  reached  foreign  markets  for  cen- 
turies past. 

There  is  nothing  so  indefinite  as  describing  a  Persian  rug,  simply 
as  Persian,  because  there  are  twenty-five  or  thirty  kinds  of  carpets  that 
come  under  that  head,  each  entirely  distinct  from  the  others ;  and  unless 
the  specific  name  is  given  it  is  impossible  to  tell  what  sort  of  a  rug  or 
carpet  is  meant.  It  may  be  stated  in  general  that  the  texture  of  the 
Persian  carpets  is  more  close  than  that  of  Turkish  carpets,  which  have 
a  long  nap  and  are  thicker.  Persian  rugs  are  all  made  by  hand,  without 
a  single  exception;  they  are  stretched  on  frames  as  one  would  make  a 
sampler,  and  all  the  members  of  a  family  work  on  them ;  a  pattern  pre- 
scribed for  that  particular  carpet  is  before  them,  which  they  follow  with 
more  or  less  precision,  according  as  their  fancy  suits  them.  As  a  rule, 
considerable  license  is  allowed  for  the  expression  of  individual  taste  in 
working  out  these  patterns;  no  two  carpets  are  therefore  exactly  alike, 
and  the  owner  of  an  old  Persian  rug  may  be  reasonably  sure  that  while 
he  may  find  other  rugs  resembling  his,  not  one  that  is  absolutely  identical 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


133 


exists.  This  quality  gives  them  a  value  similar  to  that  possessed  by  an 
oil  painting. 

The  sugar  cane  grows  finely  in  the  Caspian  provinces,  but  no  sys- 
tematic and  scientific  attempts  have  been  employed  to  make  it  profitably 
productive. 

Tobacco,  as  all  know,  is  among  the  most  prominent  products  of 
Persia,  so  the  Persians  too  have  that  very  injurious  habit  of  smoking, 
though  to  their  credit  be  it  said  they  never  chew  and  they  use  very  little 
snuff.  This  is  the  story  circulated  among  them  as  to  the  first  use  of 
tobacco :  Once,  many,  many  years  ago  there  was  a  very  sick  man  whom 
the  doctors  could  not  cure  of  his  terrible  disease,  so  he  was  cast  out  by 
his  relatives  into  a  lonely  place  where  they  hoped  that  he  might  die,  and 
they  in  this  way  would  get  rid  of  him.  He  of  course  became  very 
hungry,  but  there  was  nothing  for  him  to  eat.  He  found  a  plant,  how- 
ever, growing  there,  and  that  he  ate  because  he  was  so  desperately 
hungry  that  he  could  eat  anything.  By  and  by  he  began  to  like  the  taste 
.  of  it,  and  he  felt  better,  too,  so  he  kept  on  eating  it  until  he  was  entirely 
cured  of  his  disease.  He  then  returned  home  to  his  people,  who  were 
astonished  to  see  him  in  perfect  health,  and  asked  him  what  had  cured 
him.  He  showed  them  the  plant,  which  was  tobacco.  It  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  their  old  legends  and  songs,  showing  that  while  America 
claims  the  honor  (?)  of  its  introduction  into  civilized  life,  yet  this  noxoius 
weed  was  known  and  used  in  Persia  long  before  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica and  the  days  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

Every  smoking  man  in  Persia  must  have  not  only  a  pipe,  but  also 
a  piece  of  flint,  a  piece  of  steel,  and  a  supply  of  punk,  or  tinder  in  his 
pocket  to  start  a  fire  to  light  his  pipe.  This  primitive  method  of  starting 
a  fire  is  still  in  use  there  because  matches  are  not  yet  manufactured 
there,  and  when  they  have  to  be  imported  they  are  more  expensive  than 
the  punk.  If  a  man  who  smokes  should  happen  to  have  no  tobacco  and 
should  meet  a  Turk  and  ask  him  for  a  smoke,  the  Turk,  if  he  himself 
smokes,  would  at  once  ask  him  to  show  his  pipe,  flint,  steel,  punk,  and 
tobacco  bag.  Should  he  find  the  man  in  possession  of  all  these  things, 
he  would  know  at  once  that  he  is  a  professional  smoker  and  would  give 
him  some  tobacco.  But  if  all  these  things  are  not  found  with  him  the 
Turk  knows  that  he  is  only  an  occasional  smoker  and  promptly  tells  him 
to  go  away,  or,  to  put  it  literally,  he  says,  "Johanamal,"  "Go  to  hell."  ' 
HOUSES  AND  CITIES. 
The  houses  as  a  rule  are  built  of  sun  dried  bricks,  but  very,  few 
being  made  of  burnt  bricks.   The  homes  of  the  poor  contain  but  one 


134 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


large  room.  Some  of  these  houses  have  rooms  built  upon  the  flat  roof, 
which  is  reached  by  a  flight  of  stairs  built  on  the  outside.  Wealthy 
people  live  in  well-built  two-story  houses.  In  cities  the  houses  are 
built  closely  adjoining,  so  that  it  is  possible  to  walk  all  over  the  city 
on  the  house  tops.  This  is  the  common  way  of  traversing  in  winter 
when  the  streets  are  impassible  owing  to  slush  and  mud.  In  some  of 
the  large  cities  such  as  Teheran,  the  capital,  Isphahan  and  Shiraz,  modern 
street  paving  is  being  introduced.  Streets  have  no  names,  houses  are 
not  numbered,  no  police  patrolmen  during  the  day,  no  city  directory 
is  to  be  found.  All  information  must  be  obtained  from  persons  you 
chance  to  meet  and  find  able  and  willing  to  give  it,  or  else  canvass  from 
house  to  house  until  you  reach  your  point.  There  are  no  newspapers 
of  any  kind  and  of  course  no  advertising  is  done.  As  you  walk  the 
streets  you  will  hear  the  call  to  prayer  when  the  Mollah,  three  times 
a  day,  stands  on  the  roof  of  a  minaret  on  a  mosque  and  repeats  the 
muezzin.  But  at  times  the  throng  crowding  the  narrow  streets  is  so 
dense  as  to  prevent  the  Mollah  from  attending  to  his  duty.  Then  a 
lord  or  government  official  may  be  seen  with  a  company  of  from  50  to 
200  soldiers,  as  the  case  may  demand,  going  up  and  down  the  street 
to  open  the  way  for  him  to  pass.  Every  person  must  stand  still  and 
bowing  low  push  against  a  wall  when  an  officer  passes.  A  refusal  to 
comply  with  this  custom  would  put  anyone  in  danger  of  being  whipped 
to  death. 

They  build  their  houses  in  this  way:  They  first  dig  a  foundation. 
Then  they  dig  up  earth  and  put  water  in  it  thus  making  mud.  Then  the 
laborers  take  off  their  shoes  and  stockings  and  roll  up  their  trousers 
above  their  knees  and  get  into  this  mud  and  tramp  it  with  their  feet, 
turning  it  about  twice  as  they  do  so.  By  this  time  it  will  be  all  right  and 
will  stick  together  very  nicely.  They  then  build  a  wall  of  this  about  four 
feet  high  and  from  three  to  four  feet  thick.  It  will  require  four  or 
five  days  to  dry.  When  it  is  dry  they  build  as  much  more  on  top  of  it 
and  continue  in  this  way  until  it  is  the  desired  height.  Of  course,  such 
houses  never  burn  down  as  houses  do  in  this  country  and  the  walls 
of  some  of  them  last  from  fifty  to  seventy  years.  When  the  walls  are 
ready  they  cover  the  house  by  putting  first  a  long  heavy  beam  across  the 
center  of  it,  the  ends  resting  upon  the  walls,  while  it  is  supported  in 
the  center  of  the  house  by  one  or  two  pillars. 

Timbers  about  eight  inches  in  thickness  are  now  placed  from  this 
beam  or  sill  to  the  wall  on  either  side.  These  are  something  like  joists 
and  are  about  two  feet  apart.    Upon  these  joists  are  placed  pieces  of 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


135 


wood  something  like  laths,  about  two  inches  in  thickness  and  two 
feet  long.  Over  all  this,  first  reeds  and  then  grass  are  placed,  and 
afterwards  mud  about  six  inches  thick  is  put  over  the  whole.  The  mud 
they  carry  up  on  their  backs  and  then  tramp  it  down  thoroughly  with 
their  feet  in  order  to  make  it  stick  well  and  become  smooth.  Upon 
this  mud  they  plaster  with  the  best  kind  of  clay  mixed  with  very  fine 
chaff  to  keep  it  from  cracking.  Roofs  are  made  almost  flat,  but  sloping 
slightly  to  one  side  in  order  to  make  the  water  run  off  when  it  rains. 
This  is  conducted  off  by  means  of  a  spout.  Once  every  year  or  two 
they  replaster  the  roof.  On  some  the  different  kinds  of  green  grasses 
grow  during  the  rainy  season  in  the  spring  and  then  they  look  very 
beautiful,  but  the  summer  heat  soon  comes  and  withers  them  premature- 
ly. Hence  David  finds  this  expression  to  use  against  those  that  hate 
Zion :  "Let  them  be  as  the  grass  upon  the  housetops  which  withereth 
afore  it  groweth  up."  Ps.  cxxix-6. 

Thieves  very  often  come  in  the  night  and  dig  holes  through  these 
mud  walls  and  steal.  For  breaking  through  they  use  wooden  hammers 
and  iron  chisels  mounted  upon  wooden  handles.  Upon  the  handle 
of  the  chisel  they  fasten  a  piece  of  felt  to  keep  it  from  making  any  noise 
to  waken  the  owner  of  the  house  while  they  are  striking  it  with  the 
hammer.  It  is  to  this  effect  that  our  Lord  says,  "But  know  this ;  that 
if  the  good  man  of  the  house  had  known  in  what  watch  the  thief  would 
comel  he  would  have  watched  and  would  not  have  suffered  his  house  to 
be  broken  up,  (or  digged  through)  Matt.  20:12-43. 

The  floors  are  simply  hard,  clean,  smooth  earth  floors.  One-half 
of  the  floor  is  covered  with  a  kind  of  reed  matting  over  which  carpets  are 
spread.  I 

When  one  enters  a  house  he  takes  off  his  shoes  on  the  earth  floor, 
then  steps  upon  the  carpeted  part  and  sits  down  with  his  feet  under 
him.  In  this  country,  people  take  off' their  hats  when  they  enter  a  house, 
but  in  Asiatic  countries  they  take  off  their  shoes  instead. 

A  Persian  stove,  or  oven,  looks  like  a  cylinder.  It  is  built  of  clay 
and  is  about  four  feet  deep  by  two  and  one-half  feet  in  diameter.  It 
is  built  in  the  ground  near  the  center  of  the  house,  the  top  of  it  being  on 
a  level  with  the  floor.  They  make  fire  in  it  only  once  a  day  and  at  that 
time  they 'do  their  cooking  and  baking.  In  most  parts  of  Asia  wood 
is  very  scarce  so  their  principal  fuel  is  dried  manure.  This  is  used  for 
fuel  only  and  the  ashes  from  it  are  put  upon  the  fields  afterwards  as 
a  fertilizer.  There  are  no  pipes  to  carry  out  the  smoke,  hence  it  comes 
first  into  the  house  and  afterwards  escapes  through  the  window  in  the 


136 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ceiling  directly  over  the  oven.  The  smoke  smells  while  they  are  making 
fires,  but  in  a  short  time  after  the  fire  begins  to  burn  well,  it,  together 
with  all  other  impurities  in  the  house,  is  drawn  out  through  the 
window  which  is  open  day  and  night.  The  houses  are  thus  thoroughly 
ventilated  all  the  time  and  they  have  plenty  of  pleasant  fresh  air  to 
breathe,  although  the  ceilings  grow  quite  dark,  of  course.  They  make 
big,  hot  fires  in  these  ovens  so  that  the  sides  of  the  oven  grow  to  a 
white  heat,  while  the  coals  of  fire  still  remain  at  the  bottom. 

They  make  bread  with  yeast  which  they  keep  on  hand  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  having  kneaded  it  they  set  it  aside  to  use,  as  people  do  in 
this  country.  Afterwards  they  may  cut  it  into  small  balls  about  the 
size  of  ordinary  biscuits. 

The  lady  at  the  left  has  a  rolling  pin  in  her  hand.  She  takes  these 
balls  of  dough  one  at  a  time  and,  placing  them  on  a  broad  board,  rolls 
them  out  as  thin  as  blotting  paper.  As  she  finishes  it,  the  lady  at  the 
right  takes  it,  and,  spreading  it  over  something  made  for  that  purpose, 
puts  it  down  into  the  oven  as' far  as  her  elbow  and  sometimes  the  whole 
length  of  her  arm,  then  slaps  it  against  the  sides  of  the  oven  which  is 
quite  hot.  The  dough  adheres  to  this  and  is  quickly  baked.  It  is  re- 
moved as  soon  as  it  is  baked  and  more  put  in  its  place.  In  this  way 
they  keep  on  until  the  baking  is  all  done.    For  large  families  they  usu- 


LADY  SITTING  AT  RIGHT  IS  GRINDING  WHEAT  ON  A 
HAND-MILL,  THE  REST  ARE  BAKING  BREAD 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


137 


ally  bake  every  day  or  every  other  day,  while  some  bake  only  once  or 
twice  a  week. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  guests  come  unexpectedly  and  there  is 
not  bread  enough  in  the  house  to  serve  them.  In  such  cases  they  bor- 
row of  their  neighbors  so  many  loaves  and  when -they  bake  again  pay 
them  back.  To  this  effect  -we  have  the  words  of  our  Lord,  "And  he 
said,  which  of  you  shall  have  a  friend  and  shall  go  unto  him  at  midnight 
and  say  unto  him,  lend  me  three  loaves  for  a  friend  of  mine  is  come  to 
me  from  a  journey  and  I  have  nothing  to  set  before  him."  (Luke  n  15-7.) 

HOW  THEY  EAT. 
If  a  man  has,  for  instance,  four  sons  and  they  are  all  married  and 
some  of  them  have  children,  that,  of  course,  is  a  large  family  and  when 
they  eat  they  will  either  put  bread  and  food  in  a  wooden  tray  which  is 
made  like  a  sink  and  is  about  three  or  four  feet  long  by  a  foot  and  a 
half  wide,  or  in  a  copper  one 'about  three  feet  in  circumference,  or  else 
they  will  simply  spread  a  table  cloth  on  the  floor  which  serves  them 
as  a  table  to  place  food  upon.  Then  the  men  will  sit  around  it  according 
to  their  ages.  For  instance,  the  father,  who  is  absolute  master  of  the 
house,  sits  before  it  in  the  place  which  is  considered  the  best  and  of 
the  highest  rank,  and  next  to  him  his  oldest  son,  then  the  second  son 
and  so  on  according  to  their  ages.  When  there  is  such  a  large  family 
the  women  usually  sit  in  a  separate  place  because  the  young  brides  in 
the  family  are  not  allowed,  according  to  the  customs  of  the  country,  to 
eat  in  the  presence  of  their  father-in-law,  or  even  mother-in-law.  For 
them  to  see  the  lips  of  a  bride  move  would  be  something  unheard  of. 
They  never  use  knives  and  forks  to  eat  with,  but  their  fingers  instead, 
and  if  these  get  wet  they  lick  them.  Many  people  think  that  food  tastes 
better  when  eaten  in  this  way.  The  main  part  of  every  meal  is  bread. 
When  they  have  meat  they  usually  make  soup  and  put  vegetables  in  it. 
Onions  especially  are  considered  indispensable.  They  think  nothing 
tastes  so  good  without  onions  as  it  would  if  it  had  onions  in  it.  They  also 
put  a  little  red  pepper  into  soup  to  make  it  look  red  and  beautiful  and 
appetizing.  We  have  already  described  their  bread,  how  large  the 
cakes  are  and  as  thin  and  soft  as  blotting  paper.  This  they  break  up 
in  their  soup  and  when  it  gets  moist  eat  it.  They  also  eat  clabber,  butter, 
milk  and  cheese.  The  latter  is- well  salted,  then  pressed  into  a  pitcher 
and  buried  in  the  ground  for  a  -long  time,  even  a  whole  year  often.  It 
then  gets  a  little  strong  and  has  an  excellent  flavor.  This  is  eaten  with 
bread  broken  into  small  morsels.  Sometimes  they  also  eat  onions, 
pickled  green  peppers,  and  some  other  vegetables  with  cheese. 


138 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


139 


Those  who  have  onions  growing  in  their  yards  take  the  green  tops 
and  wrapping  them  around  pieces  of  bread  eat  it  with  great  relish.  They 
also  make  a  dish  which  they  call  "aash"  by  cutting  up  beet  tops  and 
celery  and  cooking  them  together  in  buttermilk.  This  they  eat  with 
spoons.  The  common  people  eat  very  little  rice  but  the  rich  eat  a  great 
deal  of  it.  From  this  they  make  two  different  dishes  called  "dolma" 
that  have  already  been  described  in  our  account  of  the  marriage  feast. 

During  the  summer  everybody  „in  the  cities,  towns  and  villages 
sleeps  upon  the  flat  roofs  of  their  houses  under  the  open  sky.  They 
have  bed  clothing  but  no  bedsteads,  people  are  not  afraid  to  sleep  on 
the  housetops  on  account  of  rain  or  lightning  because  there  is  very  little 
of  either  during  the  summer  season.  Persia  is  a  dry  country  and  has 
a  very  dry,  pure,  light,  bracing  atmosphere.  The  moonlight  there  is 
exceedingly  bright  so  that  people  often  eat  their  suppers  upon  the  tops 
of  their  houses  with  no  other  light  than  that.  'Neighbors,  while  thus 
sitting,  each  family  on  their  own  house  top  often  chat  back  and  forth 
and  are  quite  sociable  while  most  of  the  village  people  can  hear  them 
quite  well. 

During  the  winter  they  spread  carpets  or  matting  around  the  oven, 
then  having  taken  off  their  shoes  on  the  earthen  floor  they  sit  around 
it  and  warm  themselves.  Or  else  they  place  a  square  table  over  it  and 
spread  a  carpet  or  large  quilt  over  this  to  keep  the  heat  in  and  then  sit, 
a  whole  large  family,  half  under  it,  quite  cosily.  The  coals  of  fire  remain 
at  the  bottom  of  the  oven  all  day/  sometimes  all  night  even,  because 
manure  as  fuel  holds  fire  for  a  much  longer  time  than  wood,  or  coal  even. 

The  window  which  they  always  have  near  the  center  of  the  ceiling 
of  their  houses,  besides  admitting-  light  and  ventilating  the  houses 
for  many  odd  purposes. 

When  it  rains  they  have  to  place  a  pan  under  the  window  for  the 
water  falls  directly  into  the  house  through  the  window,  which  always 
stands  open  day  and  night. 

They  milk  cows,  buffalos  and  sheep.  Cheese  is  made  chiefly  of 
sheeps'  milk.  Buffalo  give  the  largest  quantity  of  milk,  and  butter  made 
from  it  is  as  white  as  snow.  Women  do  all  the  milking,  for  it  is  con- 
sidered a  disgrace  for  a  man  to  milk  a  cow.  They  milk  twice  a  day  as 
in  this  country.  When  they  have  finished  milking  in  the  morning  they 
heat  the  milk  almost  to  the  boiling  point,  then  remove  it  from  the  fire 
and  let  it  cool  a  little,  after  which  they  add  about  a  tablespoonful  of  sour 
milk  to  it.  'This  will  make  it  coagulate,  so  that  by  the  next  morning  it  is 


1  to 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


clabber  ready  for  breakfast.  With  a  little  molasses  it  is  considered  a 
good  breakfast. 

They  keep  a  little  sour  milk  from  time  to  time  to  be  used  for  curdling 
milk.  Those  who  live  in  villages  make  butter  in  large  earthen  pitchers 
called  "meta,"  while  the  nomadic  people  who  live  in  tents  make  it  in 
sheep's  skin. 

They  fill  the  sheep's  skin  with  clabber  mixed  with  some  water.  In 
winter  they  warm  the  water,  of  course.  Then  they  hang  up  the  sheep's 
skin  on  some  timbers  and  shake  it  until  the  butter  is  separated  from 
the  clabber.  When  a  lady  has  as  much  as  ten  or  twenty  pounds  of  but- 
ter, she  boils  it  well,  thus  making  an  oil  out  of  it  and  then  it  will  keep 
a  long  time.  All  the  impurities  settle  to  the  bottom  and  the  oil  is  poured' 
off  into  earthen  pitchers.  It  will  then  keep  for  a  year  or  two  and  should 
they  have  no  cow,  sheep  or  buffalo  to  milk  the  next  year,  they  will  still 
have  this  boiled  butter  or  oil  for  cooking. 

Furniture  is  not  in  use  in  Persia,  as  people  eat,  sit  and  sleep  on 
the  floor,  which  is  made  of  hard  wood  and  covered  with  mattings  and 
rugs  or  carpets.  Bedding  is  spread  out  upon  the  floor  for  the  night, 
rolled  up  and  stowed  away  for  the  day.  No  knives  and  forks  are  used 
while  eating."  Traveling  is  done  mostly  on  the  back,  of  animals  and  is 
very  unsafe,  the  roads  being  infested  with  Kurds,  robbers  and  highway- 
men. This  accounts  for  the  custom  of  traveling  in  large  companies  called 
caravans.  Passengers  find  no  accommodations  excepting  at  the  cara- 
vansories,  and  even  there  nothing  is  furnished  except  the  very  barest 
of  necessaries. 

Cities,  like  single  dwellings,  are  surrounded  by  high  earthen  walls 
about  six  feet  thick  and  twenty  feet  in  height.  The  gates  within  these 
walls  are  open  during  the  day,  but  at.  8  o'clock  in  the  evening  they  are 
closed.  No  person  can  enter  or  leave  the  city  after  this  hour  and  the 
people  within  the  city  walls  might  as  well  remain  in  doors  as  the  streets 
are  shrouded  in  utter  darkness,  there  being  no  system  of  street  lighting 
whatever.  Besides  this,  no  person  is  permitted  to  walk  the  streets  after 
9  o'clock  p.  m.  When  a  nightwatch  or  guard  (equal  to  our  patrolman) 
happens  to  meet  anyone  on  the  street  after  this  hour,  he  will  compel  him 
to  patrol  the  streets  with  him  all  night  long,  thumping  and  jerking  him 
about  and  occasionally  striking  him  in  the  neck  or  on  the  back  unless 
he  gives  him  some  money.  At  5  :30  in  the  morning  the  wanderer  is  con- 
fined in  a  prison  cell  where  he  will  have  to  remain  until  a  ransom  has 
been  paid  for  him,  the  amount  of  which  is  determined  by  the  chief  of 
police.   Persons  whose  duty  or  calling  make  it  imperative  to  go  out  upon 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE 


141 


the  streets  after  9  p.  m.,  such  as  physicians,  nurses,  etc.,  can  do  so  un- 
molested provided  they  have  been  careful  to  get  the  password  from  the 
mayor  of  the  city.  Such  a  password  is  given  out  to  the  city  officials  by 
the  mayor  daily  and  any  private  person  knowing  it  proves  thereby  that 
he  or  she  has  permission  to  be  out  after  the  respective  hour. 

EDUCATION. 

Education  without  religion  is  to  the  Muhammadan  mind  an  an- 
omaly. In  all  books  of  traditions  there  are  sections  specially  devoted 
to  the  consideration  of  knowledge,  but  only  so  far  as  it  relates  to  a 
knowledge  of  God,  and  of  "God's  Book."  The  people  who  read  the 
"Book  of  God"  are,  according  to  the  sayings  of  the  Prophet,  described 
as  "assembling  together,  mosques,  with  light  and  comfort  descending 
as  "assembling  together  in  mosques,  with  light  and  comfort  descending 
compassing  them  round  about.7The  chief  aim  and  object  of  education  in 
Islam  is,  therefore,  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  religion  of  Muham- 
mad, and  anything  beyond  this  is  considered  superfluous,  and  even  dan- 
gerous. /Amongst  Muhammadan  religious  leaders  there  have  always 
been  two  classes — those  who  affect  the  ascetic  and  strictly  religious  life 
of  mortification,  such  as  the  Sufi  mystics  and  the  Fagirs;  and  those 
who,  by  a  careful  study  of  the  Koran,  the  Tradition,  and  the  numerous 
works  on  divinity,  have  attained  to  a  high  reputation  for  scholarship, 
and  are  known  in  Turkey  as  the  "Ulama,"  or  "learned,"  and  in  India, 
as  "Maulawis." 

Amongst  Muhammadans  generally,  a  knowledge  of  science  and  vari- 
ous branches  of  secular  learning  is  considered  dangerous  to  the  faith, 
and  it  is  discouraged  by  the  religious,  although  some  assert  that  Muham- 
mad has  encouraged  learning  of  all  kinds  in  the  Koran,  by  the  follow- 
ing verse,  Surah  ii.  272 : — "He  giveth  wisdom  to  whom  he  will,  and  he 
to  whom  wisdom  is  given  hath  had  much  good  given  him." 

The  parents  seldom  devote  much  of  their  time  or  attention  to  the 
intellectual  education  of  their  children ;  generally  contenting  themselves 
with  instilling  into  their  young  minds  a  few  principles  of  religion,  and 
then  submitting  them,  if  they  can  afford  to  do  so,  to  the  instruction  of  a 
school.  As  early  as  possible,  the  child  is  taught  to  say,  "I  testify  that  there 
is  no  deity  but  God,  and  I  testify  that  Muhammad  is  God's  Apostle." 
He  receives  also  lessons  of  religious  pride,  and  learns  to  hate  the  Christ- 
ians, and  all  other  sects  but  his  own,  as  thoroughly  as  does  the  Muslim 
in  advanced  age. 

In  connection  with  all  mosques  of  importance,  in  all  parts  of  Islam, 


142 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


whether  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  Persia  or  India,  there  are  small  schools,  either 
for  the  education  of  children,  or  for  the  training  of  students  of  divinity. 
The  child  who  attends  these  seminaries  is  first  taught  his  alphabet,  which 
he  learns  from  a  small  board,  on  which  the  letters  are  written  by  the 
teacher.  He  then  becomes  acquainted  with  the  numerical  value  of  each 
letter.  After  this  he  learns  to  write  down  the  ninety-nine  names  of  God, 
and  other  simple  words  taken  from  the  Koran.  When  he  has  mastered 
the  spelling  of  words,  he  proceeds  to  learn  the  first  chapter  of  the  Koran, 
then  the  last  chapter,  and  gradually  reads  through  the  whole  Koran 
in  Arabic,  which  he  usually  does  without  understanding  a  word  of  it. 
Having  finished  the  Koran,  which  is  considered  an  incumbent  religious 
duty,  the  pupil  is  instructed  in  the  elements  of  grammar,  and  perhaps 
a  few  simple  rules  of  arithmetic.  To  this  is  added  a  knowledge  of  one 
Hindustani,  or  Persian  book.  The  ability  to  read  a  single  Persian  book, 
like  the  Gulistan  or  Bustan,  is  considered  in  Central  Asia  to  be  the  sign 
of  liberal  education.  The  ordinary  school  master  is  generally  a  man 
of  little  learning,  the  learned  Maulawi  •  usually  devoting  himself  to  the 
study  of  divinity,  and  not  to  the  education  of  the  young.  Amongst 
students  of  divinity,  who  are  called  Talabatu,  or  "seekers  after  knowl- 
edge," the  usual  course  of  study  is  as  follows :  as-sarf,  grammatical  in- 
flection ;  annahw,  syntax ;  al-mantig,  logic ;  al-hisab,  arithmetic ;  al-jabr 
wa'l-muqabalah,  algebra,  al-ma'na  wa'l-bayan,  rhetoric  and  versification ; 
al-figh,  jurisprudence ;  al— 'aga'id,  scholastic  theology ;  at-tafsir,  com- 
mentaries on  the  Koran  'ilmu  '1-usul,  treatises  on  exegesis,  and  the 
principles  and  rules  on  interpretation  of  the  laws  of  Islam;  al-ahadis, 
the  traditions  and  commentaries  thereon.  These  are  usually  regarded 
as  different  branches  of  learning,  and  it  is  not  often  that  a  Maulawi,  or 
'Alim,  attains  to  the  knowledge  of  each  section.  For  example,  a  scholar 
will  be  celebrated  as  being  well  educated  in  al-ahadis,  but  he  may  be 
weak  in  al-figh.  The  teacher,  when  instructing  his  pupils,  seats  himself 
on  the  ground  with  his  hearers  all  seated  round  him  in  a  ring.  Instruc- 
tion in  mosques  is  usually  given  in  the  early  morning,  after  the  morning 
prayer,  and  continues  some  three  or  four  hours.  It  is  again  renewed 
for  a  short  time  after  the  mid-day  prayer.  Students  in  mosques  are  gen- 
erally supported  by  the  people  of  the  parish,  who  can  be  called  upon 
for  food  for  all  the  inmates  of  a  mosque  every  morning  and  evening.  Not 
infrequently  mosques  are  endowed  with  land,  or  rents  of  shops,  and 
houses,  for  the  payment  of  professors. 

Every  city  or  town  has  its  school  for  boys,  located  in  the  mosques 
and  conducted  by  Mollahs.  The  attendance  at  the  school  also  for  the  boys 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


143 


is  voluntary,  no  one  being  compelled  to  send  his  boys  if  he  should  pre- 
fer to  keep  them  at  home.  Pupils  pay  the  teacher  all  the  way  from  five 
to  twenty-five  cents  a  month  tuition ;  but  such  as  are  too  poor  to  pay 
anything  are  admitted  free  of  charge.  The  Mollah's  sustenance  is  fur- 
nished him  by  the  pupils  daily  in  the  form  of  eatables  of  all  kinds.  These 
schools  are  attended  by  boys  and  youths  ranging  from  ten  to  twenty 
years  of  age.  The  teacher  has  authority  to  punish  the  pupil  very  se- 
verely. Parents  will  sometimes  take  a  boy  to  school  and  deliver  him 
over  to  the  gentle  keeping  and  care  of  the  teacher  with  these  words : 
"His  bones  are  mine,  but  his  flesh  is  yours.  Teach  him  and  punish 
him  as  you  see  fit." 

When  boys  go  to  school  they  usually  sit  in  two  rows.  One  row 
sits  along  one  wall  books  in  hand  and  the  other  row  along  the  op- 
posite wall  while  the  teacher  sits  in  the  center  of  the  room.  They  do  not 
use  chairs  but  sit  on  the  floor  which  is  covered  with  a  reed  matting. 
When  they  are  studying  their  lessons  they  sway  their  bodies  backward 
and  forward  as  though  they  were  in  a  rocking  chair  and  read  in  a  sing- 
song style  as  though  they  were  chanting,  sometimes  so  loud  that  they 
can  be  heard  for  quite  a  distance.  They  have  neither  blackboards  nor 
slates  but  use  paper  and  reed  pens  for  learning  to  write.  They  put 
their  left  knee  on  the  floor  and  set  their  right  one  up  for  a  desk  to  rest 
the  paper  on.  They  use  the  Arabic  alphabet  and  read  and  write  from 
right  to  left  instead  of  left  to  right.  They  also  begin  their  books  at  the 
back  reading  forward.  In  their  schools  they  learn  to  read  some  tales 
and  traditions  of  the  Koran  and  some  poetry  but  do  not  study  much 
mathematics  or  geography  and  no  science  but  plenty  of  astrology.  When 
they  have  finished  school  they  become  secretaries,  shop  keepers,  mer- 
chants, priests,  jewelers  and  bankers. 

Among  Mohammedan  children  and  even  among  old  people  cursing 
is  very  common.  They  say  "May  'Allah'  kill  your  children  or  burn 
your  house,  or  may  your  father  be  burned,"  and  such  things.  They 
swear  by  "Allah"  who  created  everything  from  nothing.  A  Moham- 
medan may  swear  to  a  falsehood  in  the  name  of  "Allah"  but  his  faith 
in  God  who  created  everything  out  of  nothing  is  true  and  sincere. 

A  post  is  planted  in  the  school-room.  To  this  an  unruly  boy's 
feet  are  tightly  fastened,  soles  upward,  and  the  soles  are  then  belabored 
with  heavy  switches.  This  is,  however,  applied  only  to  the  most  unruly 
and  wilfullest.  For  milder  offenses,  the  teacher  raps  pupils  over  the  head 
with  a  long  switch,  which  is  always  kept  in  a  convenient  place  or  carried 
about  with  him  by  the  teacher.    Religious  teachings  are  limited  to 


144 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


quotations  from  the  Koran  and  repeating  the  traditions  about  their 
prophets.  The  boys  are  generally  very  fond  of  reviling  each  other,  and 
very  quarrelsome.  The  teacher  does  not  protect  the  weaker,  but  urges 
him  on  to  return  insinuations  or  blows.  Frequently  the  pupils  of  one 
mosque  attack  those  of  another,  regarding  them  as  their  enemies.  The 
most  prominent  university  of  the  Shute  Mohammedans  is  in  the  shrine 
of  Karballa. 

All  who  wish  to  become  Mushtaheds  (see  Priesthood)  study  at  this 
place.  In  several  large  cities  they  have  schools  of  higher  rank  than 
the  ordinary  mosque-school.  In  these  the  pupils  are  offered  a  course  of 
Persian  literature.  We  state  with  pleasure  that  the  late  Shah,  after  his 
visits  to  some  of  the  European  universities,  has  founded  a  college  in  his 
capital,  which  is  called  the  abode  of  science.  The  French,  English 
and  Russian  languages  are  taught  here,  and  the  study  of  some  modern 
sciences  are  being  introduced.  This  institute,  however,  is  only  available 
to  princes  and  sons  of  wealthy  people ;  it  is  only  one  pretty  flower  in 
the  vast  wilderness.  The  aim  of  Mohammedanism  is  to  keep  the  masses 
ignorant,  so  that  the  priests  may  continue  to  rule  over  them.  The  en- 
tire priesthood,  therefore,  does  not  favor  higher  education.  Some  counts 
or  lords  send  their  sons  to  Paris,  in  France,  to  be  educated,  but  the 
ordinary  young  man  has  no  opportunities  to  acquire  knowledge. 

Mohammedans  who  can  read  and  write  always  have  a  pair  of  scissors 
in  the  ink-case  that  they  carry  with  them  in  their  pockets.  When  thev 
write  a  letter,  they  always  trim  the  margins  of  it,  for  a  tradition  is 
current  among  them  that  if  they  did  not  cut  the  margins  of  their  letters 
their  wives  would  be  untrue  to  them.  Having  put  their  letters  into 
envelopes  with  their  edges  properly  trimmed,  they  always  seal  them 
with  a  seal  that  most  of  them  carry  in  their  purses. 

MOHAMMEDAN  WOMEN. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  Mohammedans  not  to  open  too  wide  the  eyes 
of  women,  consequently  they  have  no  schools  for  girls.  Among  the 
higher  classes  even,  very  few  ever  teach  their  daughters  to  read,  con- 
sequently there  are  millions  of  Mohammedan  women  who  during  their 
whole  lives  can  never  take  up  a  book  and  read  or  sit  down  and  write 
a  letter  to  their  friends.  Sometimes  it  happens  that  a  woman's  husband 
has  to  reside  for  a  time  several  hundred  miles  distant  from  her.  In  such 
a  case  should  she  wish  to  write  to  him  she  will  cover  her  face  and  go  to 
a  priest  and  tell  him  what  she  wants  to  have  written  to  her  husband. 
He  then  writes  the  letter  for  her  and  she  pays  him  for  it.    When  she 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS1  ANfi  SOCIAL  LIFE. 

receives  a  letter  from  her  husband  she  again  has  to  go  to  the  priest 
or  some  one  else  that  can  read  and  has  them  read  it  for  her.  This  shows 
how  very  ignorant  they  are  and  no  wonder  then  that  they  are  so  super-- 
stitious.  When  they  go  out  it  is  customary  for  them  to  cover  their  entire 
body  with  a  large  blue  wrap,  while  a  linen  veil,  with  small  holes  in  it 
for  the  eyes,  is  worn  over,  the  face.  These  wraps  they  wear  are  nearly 
all  of  the  same  color  and  the  same  material  so  that  when  they  are  out- 
walking many  of  them  cannot  be  recognized  by  their  own  nearest  rela- 
tives even.  Rich  and  poor  appear  just  the  same.  When  they  go  to  a1 
party,  or  ladies'  reception  we  might  call  it,  they  paint  their  faces  with1 
a  red  substance,  and  blacken  their  eyes,  eyelashes  and  eyebrows  with1 
black  antimony.  Many  of  them  color  their  fingers  and  finger  nails  and^ 
even  their  feet  red  with  henna.  They  dye  their  hair  also  with  henna  and' 
plait  it  in  many  long  braids.  They  wear  necklaces  and  chains  around' 
their  necks  and  bracelets  and  glass  bangles  on  their  arms.  Quite  a 
number  of  them  smoke  pipes.  Most  of  the  ladies  of  the  higher  classes 
are  very  idle.  They  invite  each  other  to  parties  by  turns.  Often  ten 
or  fifteen  of  them  may  be  seen  in  the  streets  attended  by  servants,  go- 
ing to  parties.  Where  women  are  gathered  no  men  appear,  and  where 
men  are  no  women  come. 

Fashions  among  Mohammedan  women  do  not  change  as  they  do 
among  ladies  of  this  country.  There  a  costume  that  was  worn  by 
a  lady  twenty  or  more  years  ago  is  just  the  same  as  those  worn  by  the 
ladies  of  to-day.  I  dare  say  that  I  have  seen  more  changes  of  styles  in 
the  ladies'  dress  of  this  country  during  my  short  residence  here  than 
all  the  records  of  Persia  in  that  line  could  show,  were  such  records  kept, 
from  the  time  of  the  resting  of  the  Ark  on  Ararat  to  the  present  day. 
The  Mohammedan  ladies  cover  their  person  when  they  go  out,  but  the 
ladies  of  this  country  wear  hats  upon  their  heads  instead.  Mohammedan 
women  are  never  seen  bareheaded  and  their  '^voice  must  not  be  heard 
in  the  streets  and  their  mouths  must  not  be  seen  moving  to  eat  anything. 
If  two  ladies  wish  to  speak  to  each  other  in  the  steets  they  must  step 
aside  where  they  cannot  be  seen  by  the  passers-by. 

Women  of  the  lower  classes  work  very  hard.  Peasant  women  rise 
early  in  the  morning  and  do  their  milking  and  general  house-work.  Then 
they  take  their  sickles  and  cut  grain  in  the  harvest  fields,  or  their  short 
handled  hoes  and  cut  weeds  in  the  cotton  fields.  In  the  evening  when 
they  come  home  there  will  be  seen  on  their  backs  a  five  foot  square 
canvas  filled  with  fresh  grass  for  the  cows  and  buffalos  and  their  young. 
This  they  feed  them  in  the  evenings  so  that  they  may  have  plenty  of  nice 


146 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


milk  the  next  morning.  Widows  do  harvesting,  weeding,  sewing,  weav- 
ing and  spinning.  During  the  wheat  harvest  they  go  to  the  fields  and 
glean  but  they  are  seldom  allowed  to  follow  the  reapers.  They  glean 
after  the  wheat  is  stacked,  gathering  the  heads  one  by  one,  they  take 
them  home  and  thresh  them,  and  in  this  way  add  to  the  store  of  grain 
for  the  winter.  Dish  washing  is  a  very  small  item  with  them  for  they 
use  very  few  dishes.  After  some  meals  there  are  none  to  wash.  They 
very  seldom  wash  clothes  either.  When  they  do,  a  certain  plant  and  the 
bark  of  the  soap  tree  are  used  for  it  and  very  little  soap. 


THE  PERSIAN  WOMEN  CLEANING  CABBAGE. 

It  is  the  women  of  the  middle,  and  some  too,  of  the  lower  classes, 
that  have  made  Persia  famous  all  over  the  world  for  her  elegant  rugs, 
carpets  and  shawls.  They  spin  the  yarn  and  dye  it  at  home  in  the  excel- 
lent colors  that  hold  their  own  as  long  as  a  piece  of  it  remains.  It  takes 
a  long  time  to  make  these  rugs, however,  for  every  particle  of  the  work 
is  done  by  hand.  It  requires  from  three  to  four  months  to  make  a  single 
rug,  but  when  finished,  it  is  not  only  beautiful  but  will  also  last  for  years, 
thus  making  Persian  rugs  celebrated  not  only  for  their  beauty  but  for 
their  durability  as  well. 

MODES  OF  TRAVELING. 

Camels  are  liked  best  for  this  business  on  account  of  their  great 
strength  for  bearing  burdens  and  their  great  ability  to  endure  hardships, 
such  as  hunger  and  thirst,  their  gentleness,  on  account  of  their  being  so 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE.  147 

easily  kept.  A  few  persons  only  can  lead  a  caravan  of  fifty  or  a  hundred 
camels.  The  camels  are  all  bound  together  and  go  the  road  one  behind 
the  other  like  coaches  of  a  very  long  train.  Bells  are  hung  upon  the 
camel's  neck ;  while  traveling  they  tinkle  continually,  and  if  during  dark 
nights  highwaymen  should  stop  a  camel,  the  sound  of  the  bells  would 
be  interrupted.  The  caravan  men's  ears  are  so  accustomed  to  the  sound 
of  these  bells  that  they  at  once  detect  it  if  one  goes  wrong,  and  they  are 
equally  prompt  to  see  what  the  trouble  is  and  protect  their  camels. 

The  higher  classes  of  men  in  Persia  travel  on  horseback.  The 
Shah  himself  rides  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  this  way,  but  for  ladies  be- 
longing to  the  upper  classes,  the  "tektaravan"  is  used.  It  is  somewhat 
similar  to  the  sedan.  It  rests  upon  two  poles  and  is  carried  by  horses 
and  used  by  wealthy  people  only.  The  "tektaravan"  is  often  seen  pass- 
ing through  the  streets  accompanied  by  the  jingling  of  the  bells  on  the 
horses'  necks.  .  It  is  followed  and  surrounded  by  a  number  of  servants 
and  attendants.  Next  in  point  to  the  "tektaravan"  is  the  "kagava"  for 
ladies  to  travel  in.  It  is  used  by  the  middle  classes  and  by  some  of  the 
higher  classes  also,  and  consists  of  two  cages  or  boxes  made  of  wood  and 
fastened  together.  These  have  their  fronts  opened,  and  are  fastened 
securely  on  the  backs  of  the  horses  or  mules.  One  lady  sits  in  each  of 
these  boxes,  while  the  articles  they  have  with  them  are  placed  with  the 
lighter  lady  to  balance  the  "kajara"  and  prevent  it  from  swinging  too 
much.  The  "kajara"  is  always  guarded  by  servants  or  "charvadars." 
They  travel  long  distances  in  this  way  and  it  is  a  very  common  mode 
of  traveling  throughout  the  whole  of  Persia.  The  lower  classes,  or 
villagers,  do  what  little  traveling  falls  to  their  miserable  lot  on  foot  or 
upon  the  backs  of  donkeys,  seldom  upon  horseback.  Donkeys  are  the 
animals  most  generally  used  among  the  lower  classes  both  for  riding 
and  bearing  burdens,  and  while  all  the  modes  of  traveling  in  Persia  are 
very  slow  and  tedious,  this  one  is  especially  noted  for  its  slowness.  Con- 
sequently those  who  travel  in  this  way  must  have  an  extraordinary 
amount  of  patience. 

The  numerous  nomadic  tribes  of  Persia  offer  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting and  important  divisions  of  its  population.  It  is  impossible  to 
ascertain  their  exact  number,  but  it  is  probably  somewhat  over  a  million.. 

The  nomads  of  Persia  spend  the  winter  in  mud  villages  on  the 
plains ;  in  the  summer  they  move  to  the  mountains  with  their  flocks,  and 
dwell  in  goat-hair  tents.  They  resort  to  the  same  spot  year  after  year, 
and  any  tribe  or  clan  or  family  that  should  pitch  its  tents  in  a  place  pre 
viously  occupied  by  another  would  be  considered  an  interloper. 


148 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


These  nomads  are  a  thrifty  set ;  and  what  with  the  sale  of  butter 
and  cheese,  of  mutton  and  wool  and  textile  stuffs,  they  generally  keep 
the  wolf  from  the  tent  door,  and  accumulate  enough  at  least  to  endow 
their  daughters  with  flocks  and  jewels.  I  gathered  these  facts  not  only 
from  observation,  but  also  from  conversing  with  some  of  the  nomads 
themselves.  They  told  me  the  tax  collector  comes  around  every  month 
and  counts  the  flocks.  The  regular  tax  is  four  shahis,  or  three  cents 
per  month  on  each  sheep  and  goat.  This  practically  amounts  to  forty 
per  cent,  on  the  value  of  each  animal  per  annum,  if  sold  on  the  hoof; 
but  really  it  is  considerably  less  than  that  proportion,  for  during  the 
year  a  large  amount  of  wool  is  sheared  from  the  flocks,  which  is  so  much 
over  and  above  their  market  value,  while  the  cost  of  feeding  the  flocks 
and  herds  is  next  to  nothing.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  a  good  margin 
of  profit  remains  to  these  thrifty  roamers  of  the  Persian  wilds.  Of 
course,  the  chief  of  each  tribe  gets  the  lion's  share  of  the  profits,  and 
can  sometimes  indulge  in  considerable  pastoral  display ;  occasionally,  too, 
the  governors  of  the  districts  make  unusual  levies  on  them  for  contribu- 
tions of  money ;  a  large  proportion  of  the  Persian  army,  especially  for  the 
cavalry,  is  also  drafted  from  these  tribes.  They  submit  to  the  latter 
hardship  with  ill  grace  sometimes,  although  they  make  the  best  soldiers 
in  Persia.  But  all  things  considered,  no  class  of  the  Persian  population 
is  so  comfortably  situated  as  its  nomadic  tribes.  By  special  treaty  pro- 
vision with  Russia,  about  forty  thousand  of  these  nomads,  chiefly  of 
the  tribe  called  the  Shah  Sevend,  whose  winter  quarters  are  near  the 
northwest  frontier,  are  permitted  to  cross  the  line  and  pasture  their 
flocks  during  the  summer  time  on  the  fat  pasture  lands  of  the  Araz  in 
the  southern  Caucasus. 

THE  RURAL  DISTRICTS. 

Let  us  mount  on  Horseback,  or  on  little  donkeys,  and  seek  a  village 
where  we  may  cross  the  threshold  of  an  old-fashioned  Mohammedan 
dwelling.  On  our  way  to  the  country,  as  we  ride  along,  enjoying  the 
glories  of  the  summer,  giving  and  returning  the  salutations  of  peace 
and  welcome,  we  shall  find  much  that  is  interesting,  both  in  objects  and 
in  scenery.  We  hear  the  rippling  of  the  wayside  brook,  and  the  notes 
of  the  birds  as  we  pass  under  the  arching  trees.  Our  eyes  are  greeted 
by  lovely  hillsides  and  dales  covered  with  beds  of  fragrant  wild  flowers 
or  by  waving  fields  of  grain,  stretching  away  to  the  horizon.  Yonder  is 
the  mountain  side,  dotted  with  log  houses  and  with  the  slowly  moving 
caravans  of  Syrian  camels,  journeying  for  many  weary  saats,  or  hours. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


149 


In  the  absence  of  railroa'ds,  these  animals  perform  the  duties  of  loco- 
motives, although  at  a  somewhat  slower  rate.  The  peculiar  feature  about 
this  mighty  host  of  camels  is  that  they  are  led  by  a  little  sleepy  donkey. 
This  gives  origin  to  one  of  our  proverbs.  When  a  mighty  intellect 
follows  the  counsel  of  an  insignificant  one,  it  is  said,  "The  camel  is 
following  the  donkey."  Here  and  there  we  see  large  droves  of  horses, 
buffaloes,  sheep,  and  oxen,  pasturing  on  the  great  sweeps  of  grass.  Yon- 
der, from  the  high  wooded  hills,  a  host  of  donkeys  with  loads  of  wood 
on  their  backs  and  loud  jingling  bells  suspended  from  their  necks,  bray- 
ing, kicking  and  jumping,  are  on  the  road  to  their  respective  homes ; 
for  each  donkey  knows  where  he  belongs  and  needs  no  direction  in  find- 
ing the  place.  These  little  creatures  are  collected  from  various  homes 
by  a  donkey  man  every  morning  and  returned  in  the  evening  with  a 
burden  of  wood  for  the  use  of  the  household.  As  we  approach  the 
cottage,  all  the  dogs  in  the  village  are  thoroughly  aroused  by  our  knock- 
ing. 

The  Agah,  or  head  man  of  the  family  or  village,  like  his  fellow  villag- 
ers, is  simple-minded,  good-hearted,  honest,  but  unprogressive,  unambi- 
tious and  ignorant.  He  cannot  read  or  write,  nor  does  he  know  any  other 
literature  and  history  than  that  of  his!  own  immediate  ancestors,  and  he 
passionately  cherishes  these  legends  and  traditions  of  his  fathers.  He 
never  strives  to  keep  up  appearances. 

Like  neighboring  peasants,  his  life  is  simple  and  his  wants  are  few. 
Many  generations  have  wrought  little  or  no  change  in  his  manners 
and  modes.  He  scorns  all  modern  improvements,  and  regards  them 
with  much  suspicion  and  prejudice.  His  bigotry  and  ignorance  render 
him  an  easy  victim  to  superstition ;  and  consequently,  any  Western  farm- 
ing machinery,  and  any  advanced  movement  that  is  beyond  his  compre- 
hension, he  pronounces  "devilish,"  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  it. 

He  is  the  head  of  a  great  family,  grouped  together  on  the  mountain 
side,  with  its  green  sloping  pastures,  and  lives  with  his  flocks  and  nu- 
merous children.  An  ample  roof  shelters  the  nearly  three  score  mem- 
bers of  the  family  for  generations  under  a  single  roof,  without  knowledge 
or  care  for  the  world  outside  their  little  village.  Yet  they  are  com- 
fortable, happy  and  contented  in  their  little  round  of  duties  and  pleasures, 
and  are  blessed  with  an  easy-going  temperament.  The  young  man  rises 
with  the  sun  in  the  morning,  and  with  his  flocks,  wanders  over  green 
mountains  and  hills,  by  shady  groves  and  still  waters,  singing  cheerfully 
his  native  ballads  through  the  woods,  or  playing  his  sweet-toned  flute. 
He  returns  home  late,  as  the  waning  moon  feebly  lights  up  the  exquisite 


150 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


landscape.  He  joins  the  family  dance  by  the  blaze  of  the  evening  fire, 
while  the  old  women  weave  cotton  and  yarn,  or  are  occupied  in  making 
various  articles  for  domestic  use.  The  house  is  built  in  a  picturesque 
locality. 

Logs  are  brought  down  from  the  near  forest.  Bricks  are  made 
of  mud  and  straw,  and  are  molded  in  various  sizes  and  shapes,  then 
put  into  open  fields  to  dry.  In  a  few  days  they  become  sufficiently  solid 
for  building  a  substantial  house.  The  earth  which  is  dug  out  is  banked 
against  the  sides  of  the  house,  and  the  rear  of  the  structure  is  entirely 
imbedded  in  the  hillside.  Light  enters  through  the  oiled  paper  windows 
in  the  flat  roof,  or,  when  windows  are  altogether  discarded,  the  occu- 
pants are  content  with  what  light  penetrates  down  from  the  low  chim- 
ney, which  is  not  higher  than  the  roof. 

The  abodes  of  the  Mohammedan  farmers  are  more  like  bee  hives 
than  human  dwellings.  They  are  really  huts,  mainly  one  story,  barn 
and  house  being  built  under  one  roof.  Such  an  abode  old  Diogenes  him- 
self would  have  coveted.  In  the  summer  the  stork  builds  her  nest  on 
the  broad-topped  chimney  and  raises  her  brood  quite  undisturbed.  At 
night  the  room  is  illuminated  by  a  feeble,  flickering  olive  oil  wick. 

There  are  no  tables,  no  chairs,  no  books,  no  ornamental  decora- 
tions, but  here  and  there  are  spread  divans,  and  minders,  or  cushions, 
with  drapery  of  Kurdish  stuffs,  upon  which  the  occupants  stretch  them- 
selves in  crosslegged  carelessness. 

One,  or  perhaps  two,  large  rooms  suffice  for  sleeping,  cooking,  eat- 
ing and  lounging.  With  such  rude  belongings  the  Agah  never  seems 
to  think  anything  is  lacking.  On  the  wall,  if  we  charitably  term  it  so, 
or  rather  on  the  partitial  partition  that  separate  the  living  apartments 
from  the  vast  stable,  are  saddles,  bridles,  guns  and  the  entire  parapherna- 
lia of  the  field  and  chase.  The  equine  favorites  are  nearest  the  family, 
for  as  with  all  Orientals  and  some  Occidentals,  the  horse  ranks 
highest  in  esteem  as  a  domestic  animal.  Farther  on  are  donkeys,  buffa- 
loes, cows,  and  sheep,  with  chickens  scattered  between  them. 

As  we  step  into  the  house  we  are  received  with  a  profusion  of  sa- 
laams. We  at  once  find  ourselves  in  the  midst  of  a  large  Mohamme- 
dan family,  grandfathers,  fathers,  uncles,  brothers,  cousins,  and  numer- 
ous children, — all  assembled  in  a  large  room,  dressed  in  gay  and  odd 
colors,  sitting  crosslegged  around  the  bright,  blazing  fire  and  warming 
their  lazy  bones.  But  we  fail  to  see  in  the  great  gathering  any  women, 
except  the  old  grandmother.  The  young  Mohammedans  here  must 
surely  have  some  wives ;  in  such  a  large  family,  doubtless,  there  must  be 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


151 


some  young  girls  too ;  but  where  are  they  ?  All  out  of  sight !  As  their 
religion  does  not  allow  women  to  appear  in  the  presence  of  men,  no 
matter  how  intimately  acquainted,  they  are  all  driven  into  seclusion — a 
very  bad  custom,  indeed.  The  more  religious  a  Moslem,  the  more  rigidly 
the  privacy  of  women  is  enforced,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  country  people  in 
this  neighborhood  are  the  most  zealous  of  fanatics. 

At  the  side  opposite  the  darkest  chimney  corner,  where  the  grand- 
mother is,  sits  the  old  Agah,  stretching  his  feet  out  and  smoking  with 
Musselman  gravity  his  pipe,  which  is  so  extremely  long  that  it  extends 
from  the  corner  to  the  center  of  the  room.  In  the  course  of  our  conversa- 
tion, the  old  man  remarks,  concerning  his  residence,  that  his  great-great 
great — that  "great,"  however,  goes  about  a  half  a  mile — grandfather  was 
born  and  died  on  the  same  spot  where  he  now  lives ;  and  that  he  is  about 
seventy-five  years  of  age,  but  never  has  been  a  dozen  saats  journey 
from  his  home.  This  is  the  case  with  many  a  Mohammedan  peasant. 
Many,  indeed,  never  set  foot  outside  their  farms.  No  progress  is  ever 
made  in  this  pastoral  life.  Through  his  own  inclination,  and  the  policy 
of  his  rulers,  the  Mohammedan  has  remained  isolated  through  the  ages 
from  the  blessings  of  civilization ;  and  neither  European  influence  nor 
missionaries  have  managed  to  make  any  ingress  to  speak  of. 

As  we  chat  with  our  host  our  talk  is  interrupted  by  ten  or  fifteen 
dogs  who  are  having  a  lively  concert  of  howling  and  barking.  Let  us 
ask  him  why  he  doesn't  kill  those  useless  brutes  and  get  rid  of  them 
one  for  all.  He  will  answer  "It  is  a  great  sin  against  Allah,  and  a  viola- 
tion of  our  laws."  So  numerous  are  dogs,  especially  in  the  country,  that 
when  a  Mohammedan  was  once  asked  the  population  of  the  village,  he 
replied,  "About  one  hundred  and  sixty  dogs  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty  people." 

When  dinner  time  comes,  all  the  males  of  the  house  return  from  the 
field,  wash  their  hands  and  faces,  and  sit  crosslegged  on  the  floor  in  a 
circle  around  the  sufra,  or  low  table.  There  are  spoons,  but  no  knives 
or  forks.  In  the  center  is  placed  an  immense  bowl  of  hot  soup.  When 
ready  for  the  fray,  the  Agah  gives  them  the  signal  to  commence  and 
immediately  all  the  spoons  enter  the  bowl.  The  soup  is  followed  with 
a  dish  of  meat.  Each  rolls  up  his  long,  flowing  sleeves,  and  with  bare 
fingers  and  unbounded  appetite,  separates  the  flesh  from  the  bones.  Then 
comes  the  unfailing  accompaniment,  yoghurt,  or  coagulated  buttermilk, — 
a  highly  prized  species  of  refreshment.  After  a  succession  of  dishes,  the 
meal  is  ended  with  washing  of  hands. 

Now  let  us  watch  how  the  Agah  works  in  the  field.    He  has  no 


152 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


set  time  to  commence  his  harvest ;  he  takes  his  time,  as  there  is  not 
much  fear  of  rain  during  the  harvest  season.  As  soon  as  the  stalks  of  the 
crops  are  yellow,  or  sufficiently  matured,  they  are  cut  by  hand  with 
scythes  and  stacked  up  in  piles  in  the  open  field.  In  due  season  the  piles 
are  all  removed  from  the  various  quarters  to  the  village  threshing-floor 
in  large  arabahs,  or  carts,  drawn  by  buffaloes  and  heifers.  The  thresh- 
ing-floor is  a  hard  and  smooth  circular  piece  of  ground,  from  fifty  to 
eighty  feet  in  diameter,  upon  which  the  stalks  are  strewn.  Then  the 
threshing  machine,  a  sort  of  sled,  with  a  woman  or  boy  standing  on  it, 
is  drawn  around  on  the  hard,  earthen  floor  by  oxen.  This  threshing 
implement  is  made  of  a  hard  piece  of  wood,  and  set  on  the  under  side 
with  sharp,  flinty  stones,  like  Indian  arrow  heads.  It  grinds  the  straw 
into  fine  chaff  and  sifts  out  the  grain.  At  the  evening  breeze,  the  threshed 
grain  is  thrown  into  the  air  with  a  light  shovel,  and  thus  the  broken 
straw  is  blown  on  one  side,  leaving  the  wheat  on  the  ground  for  the 
granaries.  The  chaff  is  also  gathered  and  stored  away  for  the  purpose 
of  feeding  the  cattle  during  the  winter. 

The  farmer's  son  does  not  migrate  to  towns  in  search  of  better  em- 
ployment, but  stays  where  he  is  born,  by  his  father's  cattle,  possessed 
only  of  what  the  cravings  of  nature  require,  and  is  immovable  in  his 
peasant  instincts  as  well  as  in  beliefs,  ideas  and  usages. 

In  rural  districts,  such  as  the  one  described,  the  old  patriarchal  ad- 
ministrative system  is  still  in  vogue,  where,  within  the  crude  and  primi- 
tive log  house,  by  the  hearth,  sits  the  venerable  Agah,  whose  every  word 
is  law  to  those  within.  He  is,  as  indicated,  the  agent  for  his  community 
in  all  transactions  with  the  government. 

The  population  of  Persia  is  largely  employed  in  culturing  and  herd- 
ing. As  a  class  they  have  fewer  wants  and  comforts,  their  food  is  sim- 
ple, their  clothing  cheap  and  their  houses  not  very  costly,  and  their 
minds. uncultivated.  Very  few  of  them  can  read;  they  are  well  acquainted 
with  the  rites  and  traditions  of  their  religion,  and  are  faithful  in  per- 
formance of  ceremonies. 

Persian  farmers  are  not  the  owners  of  the  land  they  cultivate,  and 
have  no  expectations  of  ever  becoming  proprietors.  For  safety,  their 
houses  are  all  collected  in  a  village  and  are  crowded  together ;  the  stable 
is  just  beside  the  living  room,  with  one  yard  for  both ;  but  the  Kurds 
live  in  the  same  houses  with  their  cattle,  and  also  most  of  the  mountain- 
eers. 

The  roof  of  the  stable  and  corners  of  the  yard  are  filled  with  stacks 
of  hay,  thorns  and  bushes.   The  clothing  of  the  men  and  women  is  com- 


MANNERS  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


153 


mon  blue  cotton  cloth,  made  of  very  little  difference  in  style,  except  that 
the  woman's  costume  reaches  only  to  the  knee,  leaving-  limbs  and  feet 
bare. 

Their  bread  is  made  of  wheat  and  rye,  and  some  people  who  are  poor 
use  barley  also. 

The  yeasted  bread  is  rolled  into  balls  on  a  sheepskin,  then  rolled 
and  tossed  deftly  till  it  becomes  a  long,  thin  sheet,  spread  on  a  cushion 
and  slapped  on  the  side  of  the  oven  till  baked,  and  is  crisp  and  good 
when  fresh.  Thirty  or  more  of  these  sheets  are  baked  every  day,  and  it 
is  no  easy  task,  bending  over  the  hot  furnace,  preparing  them. 

The  farmers  go  out  a  long  distance  to  do  their  work.  The  most 
primitive  methods  are  employed  by  them.  Two  kinds  of  plows  are 
used.  The  smallest  one  is  simply  the  fork  of  a  tree;  the  point  of  the 
large  one  is  covered  with  iron.  They  do  not  overturn  the  soil,  but  only 
loosen  it  to  a  shallow  depth.  For  some  crops  the  ground  is  plowed 
three  times.  After  harrowing  small  ridges  or  ditches  are  made  to  di- 
vide the  field  into  sections  in  order  to  facilitate  irrigation. 

These  are  made  by  two  men,  with  the  use  of  a  large  hoe.  One  man 
pulls  the  handle  and  moves  the  soil  and  the  other,  with  the  rope,  lifts 
the  hoe  and  places  it  in  the  next  pull.  The  seed  is  carried  in  a  sack. 
There  are  no  fences ;  the  fields  extend  for  miles  without  interruption  save 
for  the  watercourses  and  trees,  planted  beside  them.  The  reaper  bends 
over  his  work  with  a  short  sickle  in  one  hand,  while  ini  the  other  some- 
times a  stick  a  foot  long  is  fastened  with!  bands  of  leather  or  a  glove  so 
that  he  may  grasp  a  larger  bundle.  The  traveler  is  accustomed  to  salute 
the  harvesters  with  greetings  such  as,  "May  God  give  you  strength." 
They  answer,  "Your  coming  is  pleasing,"  "May  Allah  keep  you."  The 
traveler  replies,  "May  your  harvest  be  blessed."  They  respond,  "May 
your  life  be  prolonged." 

If  the  traveler  be  a  prominent  man,  they  bring  a  sheaf  and  set  it 
before  him  on  the  road,  or  a  sheep  with  a  knife  held  at  its  throat,  ready 
for  sacrifice  should  he  give  the  word. 

The  proper  acknowledgment  is  a  backshish.  Carts  drawn  by  oxen 
or  buffalo  are  used  for  transportation  of  the  crops.  They  are  heavy 
structures  about  fifteen  feet  long.  The  bed  is  six  feet  wide  at  the  back 
and  gradually  narrows  until  it  reaches  a  point  at  the  end  of  the  tongue. 
The  wheels  have  clumsy  spokes,  on  the  end  of  which  heavy  arcs  of  wood, 
without  spokes  and  with  broad  iron  tires. 

The  threshing  floors  are  just  beside  the  village,  and  close  to  one 
another  for  safety  and  convenience.    A  plot  of  land  about  twenty-five 


154 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


feet  square  is  leveled  off  and  hardened.  A  staple  is  fastened  in  the  mid- 
dle and  to  a  pole  is  sometimes  fastened.  Oxen  tied  to  the  staple  or  pole 
tread  upon  and  thresh  out  the  grain.  The  oxen  are  often  muzzled.  The 
people  say  it  is  right  to  do  so,  lest  the  oxen  surfeit  themselves  to  their 
own  injury.  Several  kinds  of  threshing  machines  are  used.  One  kind 
consists  of  a  roller  about  five  feet  long  with  teeth  or  spikes  spirally  ar- 
ranged upon  it.  It  revolves  as  the  oxen  draw  it.  Another  kind  is  in  the 
shape  of  a  paddle,  four  or  five  feet  long  and  two  feet  wide  in  the  long  part. 
Under  it  are  fastened  about  thirty  rows  of  fiintstones  which  protrude 
below  the  surface.  The  front  part  is  turned  up  like  a  sledge-runner, 
and  a  man  stands  on  it  beating  the  oxen.  By  either  of  these  methods 
the  straw  is  thoroughly  cut  up  and  the  wheat  loosened. 


TWO  PERSIAN  CHRISTIANS  DIGGING  DITCHES  FOR  IRRIGATION, 
BEING  FORCED  BY  THE  MOHAMMEDAN  STANDING 
IN  THE  MIDDLE. 

With  a  pitchfork  it  is  cast  before  the  wind  and  the  chaff  is  blown 
aside.  The  cut  straw  is  stored  away  for  fodder  and  plastering,  but  bricks 
are  made  without  straw. 

A  peculiar  crop  is  the  harvest  of  thorns.  On  the  uncultivated  land 
and  on  the  fields  after  harvests  spring  up  great  quantities  of  camel- 
thorns.  These  are  diligently  gathered  and  brought  on  donkeys'  backs 
to  be  used  as  dry  manure  in  baking  bread,  burning  limestone  or  bricks, 
and  heating  the  bath  houses.  The  flocks  of  a  village  are  pastured  in 
common,  in  charge  of  herder.    The  watch-dogs  are  fierce  yellow  curs, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


155 


a  terror  to  a  stranger.  The  flocks  consist  of  sheep  and  goats,  herds  of 
cows,  buffaloes,  horses,  donkeys,  and  camels. 

Sheep  and  goats  are  greatly  valued  for  their  milk.  The  Persian 
sheep  is  noted  for  its  large  tail ;  it  is  a  mass  of  fat  of  ten-pounds  weight. 

There  is  a  popular  notion  that  if  the  calf  is  taken  away  the  cow  will 
become  dry.  Hence  the  hide  is  stuffed  with  straw  and  placed  beside  the 
cow  at  milking  time.  Oxen,  buffaloes  and  donkeys  are  almost  exclu- 
sively used  for  farm  work.  Oxen  are  sometimes  shod  and  as  many  as 
six  pairs  hitched  to  one  plow.  The  buffalo  is  extremely  ugly,  black,  al- 
most hairless  and  very  powerful.  The  donkey  has  great  endurance,  lives 
at  small  cost  on  straw,  weeds  and  thorn  bushes  and  is  withal  the  best 
friend  of  the  Persian  farmer. 

Horses,  mules  and  camels  are  little  used  in  farming.  Of  the  camels' 
hair  they  make  ropes,  rough  cloths  and  rugs,  and  even  the  finest  quality 
of  shawls.   The  feeding  of  the  camel  is  interesting. 

It  eats  thorns,  thistles  and  the  roughest  of  stubble,  but  its  peculiar 
food  is  a  ball  of  barley  or  other  flour,  about  the  size  of  a  croquet  ball, 
which  is  prepared  and  thrust  into  his  mouth.  It  is  susceptible  to  cold 
and  should  be  used  on  the  road  in  northern  Persia  only  about  seven 
months  in  the  year.  When  old  or  disabled,  its  flesh  is  eaten,  sometimes 
it  becomes  crazy  and  is  then  very  dangerous.  When  so,  it  will  tear  and 
grind  a  man  to  mince-meat  under  its  knees.  It  is  tamed  only  by  starva- 
tion. 

Irrigation  occupies  much  of  the  attention  of  the  farmers,  every 
creek  and  spring  is  utilized. 

Water  privileges  are  continually  causes  of  quarreling,  near  villages 
and  among  close  neighbors  irrigation  strifes  are  common,  and  even 
murders  are  committed  over  well  contentions  as  the  servants  of  Abraham 
and  Lot  disagreed,  since  their  crops  depend  upon  it  they  hotly  and  per- 
sistently maintain  their  rights. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Persian  people  are  largely  employed  in  agriculture  and  grazing. 
Farmers  go  a  long  distance  to  work.  Oxen,  cows  and  buffaloes  are  used 
in  plowing  the  fields.  The  plow  is  similar  to  the  fork  of  a  tree,  the  point 
being  covered  with  iron  or  steel ;  the  soil  is  scratched  up  and  loosened 
somewhat  to  shallow  depth.  Plowing  is  done  three  times  in  a  season ; 
then  narrow  ditches  are  drawn  to  divide  the  field  and  to  irri- 
gate it.  The  water  from  the  river  is  turned  into  creeks  to  run  the 
flouring  mills,  then  divided  into  little  brooks  and  streamlets,  and  thus 


156 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


carried  to  the  farms  and  fields.  The  seed  is  sown  by  hand,  broadcast. 
Reapers  or  cradles  are  not  used  in  harvesting,  sickles  or  scythes  taking 
their  places.  The  blades  of  the  agricultural  implements  are  almost  the 
same  as  those  in  the  United  States,  but  the  handles  are  very  small. 
A  reaper  cuts  one  handful  of  grain  after  another  until  a  good  sized  bun- 
dle is  cut;  this  he  then  binds  into  a  sheaf,  before  cutting  any  more,  and 
so  forth.  A  person  passing  a  field  where  a  farmer  is  at  work  will  greet 
him  by  saying,  "May  God  give  you  strength,"  whereupon  the  farmer 
will  reply,  "You  are  welcome ;  may  God  keep  you."  But  should  the  former 
be  of  the  nobility,  the  farmer  will  pick  up  a  sheaf  of  grain  and  lay  before 
the  visitor  on  the  road.  This  is  answered  by  the  latter  with  a  present 
of  a  few  cents  or  whatever  he  may  choose  to  give,  according  to  his 
dignity. 

When  the  time  for  threshing  approaches  the  farmers  have  all  the 
grain  carried  on  horseback  or  by  donkeys  to  the  vicinity  of  the  village 
where  the  threshing  is  to  take  place.  Here  the  farmer  takes  sheaf  after 
sheaf,  unties  it  and  throws  it  in  a  circle  upon  the  bare  ground,  in  the 
open  air.  Muzzled  oxen  are  then  led  across  it  again  and  again,  or  round 
and  round  in  the  circle,  to  tramp  the  kernels  out  with  their  hoofs.  It 
some  places  they  employ  a  sort  of  machine,  consisting  of  a  roller  about 
five  feet  long  and  one  and  a  half  feet  high,  with  teeth  or  iron  spikes  spir- 
ally arranged  on  it.  Above  the  roller  is  a  seat  for  the  driver,  and  when 
the  machine  is  drawn  the  roller  turns.  When  all  the  wheat  is  threshed 
it  is  left  in  a  heap  and  the  farmer  waits  for  a  strong  wind ;  then  with 
wooden  grain  forks  the  grain  is  thrown  into  the  air  and  the  wind  blows 
the  chaff  away,  while  the  kernels  fall  to  the  ground. 

This  is  then  carried  to  the  mill,  where  it  is  ground  into  flour. 

Numerous  orchards  yield  all  kinds  of  delicious  fruit.  Mulberry 
tree  orchards  are  carefully  raised  and  tended  for  feeding  silk  worms ; 
apricots  are  cultivated  in  large  orchards  and  the  fruit  dried  both  for  the 
home  market  and  for  export ;  but  a  small  part  of  the  annual  crop  is  kept 
for  summer  and  winter  use  without  cooking  or  canning  it.  Large  vine- 
yards employ  thousands  of  people,  and  the  grapes  are  among  the  best  in 
the  world  and  of  endless  variety,  and  the  wine  prepared  from  them  is  very 
palatable,  not  being  at  all  adulterated.  Large  quantities  of  molasses 
are  also  manufactured  from  grape  juice,  much  of  which  is  exported  to 
Europe,  via  Austria.  Two  kind  of  raisins  are  made  from  the  grapes; 
the  kishmish  and  the  sabja.  A  plastered  or  cemented  surface  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  is  covered  with  grapes,  which  are  then  converted  into 
raisins  by  rays  of  the  sun.   These  raisins  are  called  kishmish.  Water, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


157 


turned  into  lye  by  the  addition  of  ashes  from  thornbush  or  burnt  vines, 
is  boiled  and  grapes  dipped  into  it.  After  this  they  are_  spread  out  upon 
the  ground  to  dry  for  a  week.  The  very  choicest  raisins  are  made  from 
seedless  grapes.  A  strong,  spiritous  liquor,  called  arac,  is  manufactured 
from  raisins  by  distillation. 

A  large  part  of  the  work  connected  with  grazing  consists  in  attend- 
ing to  the  milch  cows,  sheep  and  goats.  The  milking  of  the  latter  affords 
quite  a  comical  aspect.  The  gate  or  door  of  the  goat  pen  is  so  low  that 
the  goat  must  lower  her  head  to  enter.  While  in  the  act  of  doing  so  the 
head  is  grasped  and  held  firmly  by  one  woman  while  another  milks  the 
goat.  All  milk  is  heated  forthwith  and  most  of  it  is  turned  into  matsoon 
and  cheese.   The  matsoon  or  yogurt  is  a  curd  gained  by  putting  rennet 


into  the  boiled  milk  and  letting  it  sour  for  several  days.  From  the 
soured  milk  butter  is  made  in  churns.  There  are  several  kinds.  A  large 
earthern  jar,  somewhat  shaped  like  an  egg,  is  filled  with  cream,  the  open- 
ing closed  with  a  piece  of  leather1  and  the  jar  laid  down  upon  one  side, 
whereupon  it  is  rolled  back  and  forward  on  the  ground.  Another  churn 
is  made  from  the  hollowed  trunk  of  a  tree.  It  is  suspended  in  the  air 
by  ropes  and  made  to  move  similar  to  a  swing.  Cheese  is  made  by  al- 
lowing the  whey  to  flow  off  without  pressure.  It  is  preserved  by  salt 
and  sometimes  mixed  with  herbs  for  flavor,  and  buried. 

Spinning  and  weaving  dress  goods,  carpets  and  other  fabrics  are 
universal  household  operations.  Wool  is  carded  by  pulling  it  over  a 
pair  of  long-toothed  brass  combs.  Wool  and  silk  are  sometimes  spun 
on  a  distaff,  whirled  by  hand,  but  more  frequently  a  spin-wheel  is  used, 


1 


\ 


THRESHING  WHEAT. 


158 


PERSIA  BYoA  PERSIAN. 


the  spinner  sitting  upon  the  floor  and  managing  the  thread  partly  with 
her  feet.  In  many  villages  are  little  shops  where  silk  is  spun  on  a 
small  machine.  The  cocoons  are  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling 
water  mixed  with  milk.  A  man  turns  a  wheel,  about  a  yard  in  diam- 
eter, by  means  of  a  pedal,  and  with  one  hand  stirs  the  cocoons  to 
loosen  the  fiber  while  with  the  other  hand  he  draws  up  the  thread 
to  be  wound  around  the  wheel.  The  refuse  and  stray  fibers  are  spun 
by  the  women  and  made  into  head-dresses.  In  the  orchards  of  mul- 
berry trees,  where  the  leaves  are  gathered  for  feeding  the  worms,  the 
trees  are  kept  trimmed  so  that  each  occupies  but  one  square  yard  of 
ground.  The  seed  worms  complete  their  work  in  three  months  and 
are  kept  in  the  house  during  the  winter  months.  The  annual  silk 
crop  of  Persia,  produced  chiefly  in  the  Caucasian  provinces,  amounts 
to  600,000  pounds. 

CULTIVATING  THE  GROUND. 
Persians  use  oxen  or  buffalo  to  draw  their  plows  but  buffaloes  are 
preferred  for  this  work  because  they  are  so  strong  and  can  stand 
such  hard  work.  Horses  are  never  used  for  plowing  in  Persia,  because 
the  plows  they  use  are  very  old  fashioned  and  poor  and  the  ground  is 
so  very  hard  that  it  is  impossible  for  horses  to  do  the  work.  When 
they  use  a  pair  of  oxen  for  plowing  they  make  a  very  shallow  furrow. 


PLOWING  THE  LAND  WITH  EIGHT  BUFFALOES. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


159 


If  they  use  two  buffaloes  it  can  be  made  much  better  but  even  then  the 
furrow  is  not  deep  enough  to  be  really  good.  The  depth  they  plow 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  plowshare  they  use  and  this  again  must 
be  adapted  to  the  strength  of  the  team  they  are  using.  The  plows 
they  use  with  a  single  team  of  either  oxen  or  buffaloes  throw  the  soil 
up  on  both  sides  of  the  furrow.  The  best  and  in  every  way  most  sat- 
isfactory plowing  they  do  is  when  four  farmers,  each  owning  a  pair 
of  buffaloes,  club  together  and  do  their  plowing.  Then  they  get  a 
very  large  plow  with  a  big  plowshare  and  hitch  the  eight  buffaloes 
or  four  teams  to  it.  One  man  drives  each  team,  sitting  on  it  to  do 
so,  while  a  fifth  man  guides  the  plow.    Although  buffaloes  are  such 


BUFFALO  FIGHT. 

monsters  in  size  and  strength,  in  capacity  for  eating  and  working,  they 
are  at  the  same  time  very  gentle  and  domestic  animals.  During  the 
summer  they  like  to  lie  in  water.  Usually  their  owners  give  them  a 
bath  once  or  twice  each  day  in  the  warm  weather.  In  winter  they 
are  kept  in  warm  stables  and  given  a  good  bath  once  or  twice  a  week. 
About  twice  during  each  winter  their  whole  bodies  are  rubbed  with  a 
kind  of  naphtha  to  allay  their  itching  and  heal  the  wounds  and  bruises 
they  have  received  by  being  whipped  and  beaten  while  at  work  for 
their  terrible  slowness. 

Boys  take  them  to  pasture,  riding  on  their  backs  to  do  so,  and 


160 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN". 


still  sitting  there  while  the  buffaloes  graze.  Sometimes  the  boys  will 
even  lie  down  on  the  buffaloes'  backs  and  go  to  sleep  while  the  buffa- 
loes eat. 

Mosquitoes  and  flies  annoy  buffaloes  a  great  deal,  so  they  go  and. 
lie  down  in  muddy  places  in  order  to  cover  themselves  with  mud  to 
keep  these  insects  from  worrying  them. 

When  two  strange  buffaloes  meet  they  fight  fiercely  for  hours, 
even  for  half  a  day  sometimes,  until  finally  one  of  them  gives  up  and 
runs  away  pursued  by  his  enemy  for  a  mile  or  two. 

Once  there  was  a  man  who  kept  two  very  large  buffaloes.  One 
day  one  of  them  was  out  in  a  field  grazing  when  a  wolf  came  suddenly 
up  and  springing  upon  him  ran  his  sharp  teeth  into  the  thick  skin  of 
the  buffalo's  hip.  But  the  skin  was  so  thick  and  tough  the  wolf  could 
not  tear  it  as  it  could  the  skin  of  an  ox,  so  it  hung  there  by  its  teeth 
while  the  buffalo,  terribly  frightened,  ran  home  as  fast  as  he  could, 
the  wolf  hanging  behind  him  adding  to  his  fright.  When  the  owner 
of  the  buffalo  saw  him  and  understood  the  situation  he  spoke  to  him 
to  quiet  his  fear  and  then  shot  the  wolf  and  afterwards  removed  his 
teeth  from  the  buffalo's  skin. 

THE  BAZAAR  AND  CURRENCY. 

The  bazaars,  which  is  a  term  including  at  the  same  time  a  salesroom, 
wareroom  and  manufactory,  are  in  the  center  of  the  city.  They  are 
open  after  six  in  the  morning  and  closed  at  six  in  the  evening.  Fri- 
day is  the  Mohammedan's  sabbath  day  or  day  of  rest,  and  all  stores 
are  closed.  Whenever  the  bazaars  are  open  passers-by  may  see  how 
goods  are  manufactured  on  a  small  scale.  In  the  timber  bazaar  men 
saw  boards  with  long  handsaws ;  a  little  further  on  carpenters  man- 
ufacture doors,  windows  and  coffins.  So  it  is  in  the  bazaars  of  the 
hatter,  baker,  blacksmith,  confectioner  and  restaurant.  Some  are 
weaving  cotton  and  silk  cloths,  carpets  and  shawls  on  hand-looms, 
though  some  of  these  goods  are  manufactured  in  villages  and  brought 
into  the  city  for  sale.  Again,  there  are  saddlers,  turners,  tailors,  wood 
turners,  etc. 

The  Persian  standard  of  weights — 

ioo  miskals  —  I  dirham. 
4  dirhams  —  I  hef-ta. 
8  hef-tas  —  i  batman. 
4  batmans  —  I  khon-ka-rie. 
io  batmans  —  I  load. 
25  batmans  —  1  khalivar. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


161 


Copper  and  silver  coins  are  in  general  use,  while  gold  is  scarce. 
Lately,  paper  money  has  been  issued,  both  in  Persian  and  English 
languages,  but  has  met  with  but  little  favor.  The  Russian  currency  is 
also  in  circulation  to  some  extent.  The  exchange  is  regulated  by  Eu- 
rope and  India.  The  numerous  Persian  bankers,  called  sarafs,  have 
their  abodes  within  the  bazaars.  Each  saraf  sits  on  a  cushion  in  a 
small  enclosure  behind  a  little  table  covered  with  copper,  silver  and 
gold  coins,  for  exchanging.  These  are  the  kind  whose  tables  our  Lord 
Jesus  overturned  in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem.  The  mint  at  Teheran, 
established  1878,  was  platted  by  Europeans  but  is  now  conducted  by 
Persians. 

Table  of  Persian  currency,  and  its  value — 
5  denars  —  1  gaz-beh 
30  denars  —  1  tem-bal. 
50  denars  —  1  shah-hi  —  6  tem-bal. 
100  denars — 1  yuz-al-tum  —  2  shah-hi. 
500  denars — 1  penabad — 10  shah-hi. 
1,000  denars  —  1  keran  —  20  shah-hi. 

Only  one  line  of  merchandise  is  sold  on  any  one  business  street. 
On  one  you  will  find  only  dry  goods ;  in  another  street  nothing  but 
groceries;  a  third  contains  iron,  copper  and  silversmiths'  shops,  etc. 
The  streets  average  thirty  feet  in  width  and  many  are  arched  over  with 
brick  arches,  to  shut  out  the  rain  and  the  snow.  These  covered  streets 
are  lighted  by  openings  in  the  arches.  Camels,  horses,  mules  and 
donkeys,  heavily  laden  with  goods,  may  be  seen  passing  through  the 
streets,  and  in  the  open  squares  many  of  these  animals  may  be  seen 
that  belong  to  strangers  who  have  come  to  the  city  to  buy  or  sell. 
At  the  entrances  of  some  of  the  mosques  one  may  see  a  Mollah  or  two, 
sitting  down  and  acting  as  notary  public,  drawing  up  legal  documents 
for  men  standing  around  and  before  him.  For  such  a  document  they 
get  from  ten  to  fifteen  cents. 

In  purchasing  goods  in  Persia  a  foreigner  is  liable  to  be  over- 
charged, as  it  is  quite  customary  among  dealers  to  advance  the  price 
on  their  goods  to  two  or  three  times  their  real  value,  expecting  to  be 
obliged  to  lower  the  price  before  being  able  to  make  a  sale.  Silver 
and  goldsmiths  turn  out  some  highly  artistic  work  in  the  shape  of 
rings,  and  belts  for  ladies.  You  cannot  find  a  woman  sel&ng  goods 
in  a  store  or  bazaar  in  all  Persia,  with  the  only  exception  of  one  sin- 
gle street  in  each  city  or  village,  where  poor  old  women  and  widows 
are  franchised  to  sell  such  articles  as  caps,  purses,  sacks,  soaps,  etc. 
Their  faces,  however,  must  be  covered  up  entirely,  with  only  two  holes 


L62 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


in  the  covering  for  the  eyes.  Only  a  few  women  from  the  lower  classes 
are  seen  in  the  bazaars  shopping,  and  they  dare  not  have  their  faces  ex- 
posed. No  Christian  is  permitted  to  sell  liquids,  such  as  milk,  oil,  syrups, 
or  juicy  fruit,  like  grapes,  etc.  '  Mohammedans  are  prohibited  by  law 
to  buy  things  of  this  nature  from  a  Christian,  and,  if  on  the  other  hand 
a  Christian  wishes  to  buy  anything  of  this  sort  from  a  Mohammedan, 
he  must  not  touch  anything,  as  the  merchant,  should  the  Christian 
finally  fail'  to  take  the  goods,  could  never  sell  to  a  Mohammedan  what 
has  previously  been  touched  or  handled  by  a  Christian. 

BUSINESS  LIFE. 

The  bazaars  are  not  merely  places  of  barter  but  constitute  an  exten- 
sive manufacturing  establishment.  Many  of  the  shops  are  factories  and 
though  each  one  is  on  a  small  scale,  they  collectively  carry  on  large 
industries.  There  is  no  machinery,  the  furthest  advance  is  in  sewing- 
machines,  treadles  and  imported  hand  tools.  All  the  methods  of  manu- 
facturing are  open  to  passers  by.  Some  tradesmen  are  seen  carding 
wool  and  making  kecha  or  felt  matting,  others  are  pulling  cotton  fiber 
and  making  quilts.  In  the  timber  bazaars  men  are  sawing  boards  with 
long  hand  saws,  a  little  farther  on  carpenters  are  making  them  into  doors 
and  windows;  others  are  sawing  out  the  teeth  of  wooden  combs.  In 
the  next 'shop  the  blacksmith  is  blowing  his  bellows  and  welding  hinges 
and  latches.  Rows  of  hatters  are  seen  shaping  kulas  and  stretching  them 
on  moulds  and  showing  their  styles  of  different  modes  and  thickness  of 
felt,  broadcloth,  fur  and  lamb-skin. 

The  confectioner  is  pulling  taffy  and  crushing  rice  flour  with  a  great 
sledge  hammer;  the  restauranteur,  chopping  meat  and  mixing  with  it 
garlic  and  onions,  to  make  savory  cabols ;  the  baker  is  kneading  dough, 
heating  the  oven,  and  throwing  on  pegs  the  sweet-smelling  saugaks, 
while  he  talks  across  the  ten-foot  street  to  the  chandler,  who  is  pouring 
candles  into  moulds  before  the  gaze  of  all. 

Scores  of  saddlers,  braziers,  turmingers,  tailors,  silversmith  and 
other  artisans  are  busy  at  work,  stopping  their  work  only  to  wait  on  their 
customers.  They  are  perhaps  making  some  goods  to  order,  but  espe- 
cially are  preparing  a  stock  for  all  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages, 
such  articles  as  woolen,  cotton  and  silk  goods  are  woven  on  hand-looms 
at  home ;  carpets  are  made  in  the  villages ;  dyeing  is  done  throughout  the 
city,  but  the  great  factory  is  the  open  busy  bazaar.  In  them  contests  of 
capital  and  labor  do  not  arise. 

Each  shop-keeper  is  a  small  capitalist  and  has  a -few  apprentices 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


163 


whom  he  feeds  and  clothes  and  each  of  whom  hope  soon  to  set  up  a 
separate  shop.  The  artisans  have  guilds  and  sometimes  work  in  com- 
bination to  regulate  the  price. 

In  the  exchanging  the  Mohammedan  has  advantage  over  a  Nes- 
torian  or  Armenian,  and  the  Farmer,  not  only  because  his  religion  re- 
quires that  anything  that  is  moist  and  sometimes  in  the  case  of  the  dry 
articles  of  food  a  Christian  is  not  permitted  to  touch  them. 

In  commercial  affairs  the  Persians  use  the  Arabic  figures  for  indi- 
cating the  days,  number  of  yards  and  the  weight  of  the  bale.  But  for 
money  a  different  system  is  used  based  on  the  Denar,  its  multipliers  are 
indicated  by  signs  built  one  on  the  other  after  the  manner  of  stenog- 


TWO  MOHAMMEDAN  BANKERS  OR  SARAFS. 

raphy.  These  notations  read  from  right  to  left,  while  the  Arabic  nota- 
tions read  from  left  to  right.  This  method  is  called  the  demar  system. 
Fifty  demars  equal  one  shahi,  twenty  shahis  equal  one  krau,  ten  kraus 
equal  one  toman.  The  Imperial  bank  and  many  merchants  are  now 
introducing  the  decimal  system. 

Persian  bankers  or  sarafs  are  numerous  and  capable.  Their  trans- 
actions are  confined  to  loans  and  exchange.  As  the  Koran  forbids  the 
taking  of  interest  the  amount  is  added  to  the  face  of  the  note  at  the  first. 
A  banker,  even  when  wealthy,  is  accustomed  to  sit  on  a  cushion  in  a 
little  shop,  with  an  iron  box  behind  him,  a  nurza  or  two  behind  him, 


164 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


and  a  pile  of  copper  shahis  in  front,  for  money  changing.  Exchange  in 
Persia  is  regulated  by  Europe  and  India.  The  ordinary  rate  of  interest  is 
from  12  to  1 8  per  cent.   Rates  run  as  high  as  from  48  to  120  per  cent. 

The  Kurds  often  borrow  at  10  per  cent  monthly  compound  interest, 
and  often  after  a  few  years  must  surrender  their  villages  to  satisfy  a 
claim  which  was  originally  small. 

In  the  bank  stores  and  government  offices  and  in  houses  of  the  nobil- 
ity are  a  class  of  men  employed  as  clerks,  secretaries  and  accountants. 
They  are  called  by  the  general  term  "Merza."  The  Merza  is  master  of  the 
pen.  He  can  write  correctly  and  with  the  observance  of  the  numerous 
forms  necessary,  in  addressing  the  various  grades  of  society  and  official 
life.  His  education  is  primary.  His  outfit  consists  of  a  kalamdan  and 
a  roll  of  paper.  The  kalamdan  is  a  pen-case  about  eight  inches  long 
and  one  and  one-half  in  height  and  width,  which  is  carried  in  his  girdle 
or  pocket.  It  is  usually  made  of  paper  mache  ornamented  with  pictures 
of  flowers,  and  animals,  men  and  women.  The  contents  of  the  case  are 
a  small  ink-holder,  of  brass  or  silver,  some  pens,  a  penknife,  a  piece  of 
bone,  a  small  spoon  and  a  pair  of  scissors.  The  pens  are  stiff  reeds  of 
the  same  kind  that  were  used  for  writing  on  papyrus  or  parchment.  The 
goose-quill,  though  it  has  been  used  in  some  countries  since  the  sixth 
century,  has  not  been  adopted  in  Persia.  The  steel  pen  is  being  intro- 
duced and  has  already  modified  the  writing  of  Syriac  and  Armenian, 
and  will  doubtless  modify  the  Persian  character.  The  penknife  and 
bone  are  used  to  sharpen  the  pen.  The  point  of  the  reed  is  laid  on 
the  bone  to  be  cut  to  the  proper  bluntness.  The  scissors  are  necessary 
for  trimming  the  paper,  as  etiquette  and  good  luck  requires.  Some  lint 
or  cotton  is  put  in  the  inkholder  and  saturated  with  ink.  The  spoon  is 
used  to  pour  water  on  it  jmd  mix  it. 

The  Merza  sits  on  the  floor  sufficient  unto  himself.  Sometimes  he 
has  a  small  table  about  a  foot  high  in  front  of  him ;  in  writing  a  letter 
he  takes  a  piece  of  unruled  paper  in  his  left  hand,  supports  it  on  his 
forefinger  and  writes  from  right  to  left,  curving  the  lines  upward.  He 
then  reverses  the  paper  and  writes  upon  the  margin  at  an  angle  to  the 
other  lines  and  from  the  bottom  upwards.  The  sender  certifies  it  by 
sealing  it  with  his  signet.  This  is  usually  made  of  brass  or  stone,  with 
the  name  and  title  engraved  upon  it. 

Formerly  a  letter  was  folded  until  it  formed  a  flat  roll  half  an  inch 
in  width.  It  was  then  closed  with  a  band  of  tissue  paper  on  which 
the  seal  was  affixed.  Now  letters  are  put  in  envelopes,  large  or  small, 
according  to  the  rank  of  the  person  addressed. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


165 


In  keeping  accounts  the  Merza  makes  the  entries  not  in  columns, 
but  successively  in  lines  and  joins  by  a  vinculum,  the  name,  item  and 
amount. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Persia  is  carried  on  for  the  most  part  with 
England  and  Russia.  In  the  south  the  important  trade  routes  are 
through  the  Persian  Gulf  ports,  Bushire  and  Bandar,  Abbas  by  the 
Karum  River,  and  by  Bagdad  and  Kermanshah.  The  northern  route  by 
Trebizond  and  Erzrum  is  much  used.  The  Turkish  government  allows 
goods  in  transit  to  pass  in  bond,  securing  to  itself  certain  fees  and  to  the 
country  along  the  route  considerable  profit. 

Russia  puts  a  duty  on  goods  in  transit,  in  order  to  reserve  to  itself 
the  trade  of  Northern  Persia.  Its  manufactures  are  entering  in  increas- 
ing quantities  via  Julfa,  the  Caspian  ports,  and  by  the  Transcaspian 
Railway. 

Taking  into  account  the  whole  of  Persia,  England  has  the  bulk  of 
its  trade,  both  as  to  value  and  tonnage.  It  is  interesting  to  watch  the 
rivalry  of  these  two  great  powers  in  Persia  in  matters  of  trade  and 
politics. 

NATURE'S  POETRY. 

Nature  poetry  finds  in  spring  a  strong  incentive.  Grim,  slothful 
winter  lingers  long,  holding  gentle  spring  in  his  icy  grasp.  Then  she 
rises  suddenly  in  her  youthful  strength,  and  snowflakes  change  to  flowers 
with  a  suddenness  that  surprises  the  stranger.  This  quick  transition, 
this  annual  resurrection,  is  the  theme  of  many  a  bard.  Spring  poetry  is 
addressed  to  the  stork,  as  harbinger  of  the  season,  who,  when  he  comes 
to  stay,  brings  summer  with  him. 

The  ancients  declare  that  spring  was  under  the  special  care  of  the 
Goddess  Amahid.  All  the  people  joined  in  the  feast  of  Vasthavar,  or 
"Rose  Blossoms."  In  Christian  times  this  has  been  supplanted  by  the 
three  days  of  festival  of  the  Transfiguration.  The  ancient  name,  the 
Feast  of  Rose  Blossoms,  indicates  the  love  of  the  beautiful,  which  leads 
to  the  true  and  can  have  its  origin  only  in  the  good.  There  is  a  religious 
halo  about  the  very  names  of  the  flowers.  The  ''Fountain's  Blood"  is  a 
floral  wonder.  Was  it  the  blood  of  righteous  Abel  that  sprang  from 
the  ground  as  this  crimson  flower  on  a  leafless  stalk,  calling  to  God  in 
its  blood-red  simplicity  for  vengeance  on  the  murderer?  These  beau- 
ties of  the  field  and  glen  have  called  forth  exquisite  gems  of  thought 
which  are  treasured  to  this  day. 

Summer — the  short,  sweet,  seductive  summer — does  not  last  long 


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PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


enough  to  produce  ennui.  This  brief,  bright  pageantry  of  blooming, 
fragrant  flowers  and  ripening  fruit  comes  quickly,  does  its  work  in 
haste,  and  a  chill,  gloomy  winter  succeeds,  suppressing  autumn  before 
it  fairly  has  a  chance  to  exist. 

With  what  poetic  fancy  the  return  of  spring  is  greeted  may  be  seen 
in  this  little  poem : 

Scarce  are  the  clouds  black  shadows, 

Pierced  by  a  gleam  of  light ; 
Scarce  have  our  fields  grown  dark  again, 

Freed  from  the  snowdrifts  white, 
When  you  with  smiles,  all  twinkling, 

Bud  forth  o'er  hill  and  vale. 
O  first  born  leaves  of  springtime, 

Hail  to  your  beauty,  hail ! 

Not  yet  to  our  cold  meadows 

Had  come  Spring's  guest,  the  swallow, 
Not  yet  the  nightingale's  sweet  voice 

Had  echoed  from  the  hollow. 
When  you,  like  Joy's  bright  angels, 

Came  swift  to  hill  and  dale. 
Fresh  budded  leaves  of  springtime, 

Hail  to  your  beauty,  hail ! 

Your  tender,  verdant  color, 

Thin  stems,  and  graceful  guise; 
How  sweetly  do  they  quench  the  thirst 

Of  eager,  longing  eyes ! 
Afflicted  souls  at  sight  of  you 

Take  comfort  and  grow  gay. 
New  budded  leaves  of  springtime, 

All  hail  to  you  today! 

Come  in  the  dark  breast  of  our  dales, 

To  shine  the  hills  between ! 
Come,  o'er  our  bare  and  shivering  trees, 

To  cast  a  veil  of  green ! 
Come,  to  give  sad  faced  Nature 

An  aspect  blithe  and  new ! 
O  earliest  leaves  of  springtime, 

All  hail,  all  hail  to  you! 

Come,  to  call  up  for  newborn  Spring, 

A  dawn  of  roses  fair! 
Come,  and  invite  the  breezes  light 

To  play  with  your  soft  hair  I 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


167 


Say  to  the  fragrant  blossoms : 

"Oh,  haste !    Men  long  for  you  !" 

Hail,,  earliest  leaves  of  springtime, 
Young  leaves  so  fresh  and  new! 

Come,  come,  O  leaves,  and  with  sweet  wings 

Of  hope  from  yonder  sky, 
Cover  the  sad  earth  of  the  graves 

Wherein  our  dear  ones  lie ! 
Weave  o'er  the  bones  so  dear  to  us 

A  garland  wet  with  dew, 
Ye  wings  of  Hope's  bright  angels, 

Young  leaves  so  fresh  and  new! 


Song  to  the  swallow  will  touch  the  heart  of  many  a  homesick  exile : 

O  swallow,  gentle  swallow, 
Thou  lovely  bird  of  Spring! 
Say,  whither  art  thou  flying, 
So  swift  on  gleaming  wing? 

Fly  to  my  birthplace,  Ashdarag, 
The  spot  I  love  the  best; 
Beneath  my  father's  roof-tree, 

0  swallow,  build  thy  nest. 

There'  dwells  afar  my  father, 
A  mournful  man,  and  gray; 
WTho  for  his  only  son's  return 
Waits  vainly  day  by  day. 

If  thou  shouldst  chance  to  see  him, 
Greet  him  with  love  from  me; 
Bid  him  sit  down  and  mourn  with  tears 
His  son's  sad  destiny. 

In  poverty  and  loneliness, 
Tell  him  my  days  are  passed : 
My  life  is  only  half  a  life; 
My  tears  are  falling  fast. 

To  me,  amid  bright  daylight, 
The  sun  is  dark  at  noon; 
To  my  wet  eyes  at  midnight 
Sleep  comes  not — late  or  soon. 

Tell  him  that,  like  a  beauteous  flower, 
Smit  by  a  cruel  doom, 
Uprooted  from  my  native  soil, 

1  wither  ere  my  bloom". 


168 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Fly  on  swift  wing1,  dear  swallow, 
Across  the  quickening  earth; 
And  seek  in  fair  Armenia 
The  village  of  my  birth. 


A  delicate  expression  of  the  poetic  charm  of  a  mountain  torrent 
watering  fields  and  gardens  in  the  lower  valley  is  the  following : 

Down  from  yon  distant  mountain, 
The  streamlet  finds  its  way ; 
And  through  the  quiet  village 
It  flows  in  eddying  play. 

A  dark  youth  left  his  doorway 
And  sought  the  water-side ; 
And,  laving-  there  his  hands  and  brow, 
"O  streamlet  sweet!"  he  cried. 

"Say,  from  what  mountain  cam'st  thou?" 
"From  yonder  mountain  cold, 
Where  snow  on  snow  lies  sleeping — 
The  new  snow  on  the  old." 

"Unto  what  river,  tell  me, 
Fair  streamlet,  dost  thou  flow?" 
"I  flow  unto  that  river 
Where  clustering  violets  grow." 

"Sweet  streamlet,  to  what  vineyard, 
Say,  dost  thou  take  thy  way?" 
"The  vineyard  where  the  vine-dresser 
Is  at  his  work  today." 

"What  plant  there  wilt  thou  water?" 

"The  plant  upon  whose  roots 

The  lambs  feed,  where  the  wind  flower  blooms, 

And  orchards  bear  sweet  fruits." 

"What  garden  wilt  thou  visit, 

O  water  cool  and  fleet?" 

"The  garden  where  the  nightingale 

Sings  tenderly  and  sweet." 

"Into  what  fountain  flowest  thou?" 
"The  fountain  to  whose  brink 
Thy  love  comes  down  at  morn  and  eve 
And  bends  her  face  to  drink. 

"There  shall  I  meet  the  maiden 

Who  is  to  be  thy  bride, 

And  kiss  her  chin,  and  with  her  love 

My  soul  be  satisfied."  I 


MANNEES,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


169 


SOCIAL  AND  HOME  LIFE. 

As  I  turn  to  this  chapter,  the  remembrances  of  my  Oriental  home 
rise  before  me,  hallowed  and  strengthened  by  time  and  absence.  Over 
its  shadows  and  sunshine  are  thrown  gleams  of  mellow  light  that  bear  my 
lonely  soul  on  the  wings  of  emotion  to  the  far-away  land  that  rocked  my 
cradle.  What  days  of  sparkling  mirth !  what  days  of  saddening  gloom ! 
Yet  to  my  longing  heart  the  sunshine  and  shadows  of  home  are  merged 
in  a  heavenly  radience. 

To  you,  my  reader,  I  now  extend  an  invitation  to  walk  with  me 
among  the  scenes  of  my  boyhood. 

It  gives  a  strange  effect  to  the  street  scene  to  see  the  houses  and 
yards,  like  castles  or  picturesque  fortifications,  surrounded  by  solid  black 
walls,  varying  in  hight  from  ten  to  twenty-five  feet,  with  a  heavy  gate 
before  each  house  and  an  iron  hammer  suspended  as  a  knocker  from 
its  center.  Most  of  the  residences  are  two  story  houses,  built  of  sun- 
dried  brick,  around  an  open  court  yard,  and  plastered  within  and  with- 
out. There  are  few  stone  buildings,  and  still  fewer  of  wood.  Most  of  the 
houses  have  a  balcony  overlooking  a  tangled  garden,  with  window 
ledges  abloom  with  flowers.  The  roofs  are  tiled,  and  the  numerous 
small  windows  are  closely  latticed  on  the  outside  with  a  network  of  iron 
bars  arranged  in  pairs.  As  a  rule,  the  residences  are  very  close  together, 
with  a  space  between  them  of  not  more  than  six  feet,  so  that  a  distant 
view  of  the  dwellings  makes  them. appear  as  though  erected  in  a  block. 

Entering  the  gate,  and  passing  through  the  yard,  we  come  to  the 
house.  In  the  court  yard,  and  in  the  rear  of  the  building,  there  are  gen- 
erally gardens,  with  lofty  trees  surrounding  the  house  and  overshadow- 
ing it  with  their  green  branches.  Sparkling  fountains  play  in  the  rich 
sunshine  amid  flower  beds,  exquisite  in  variety  and  hue  while  the  air  is 
perfumed  with  roses  and  made  melodious  by  the  song  of  the  nightingale. 

These  garden  spots  are  found  in  profusion  in  my  birthplace,  the  city 
of  Oroomiah,  and  may  be  seen  with  no  less  frequency  in  most  of  the 
cities  and  villages.   Indeed,  the  whole  land  is  one  of  bloom  and  blossoms. 

As  we  enter  the  house,  we  meet  with  a  most  cordial  reception  from 
the  household,  for  hospitality  and  kindness  to  strangers  are  the  first 
laws  in  the  Orient,  and  is  a  most  pleasing  and  characteristic  feature.  In- 
terchange of  visits  among  neighbors  and  friends  is  the  rule,  for  the 
people  love  to  congregate,  and  greatly  enjoy  meeting  together  to  smoke 
and  talk  over  their  affairs.  In  Christian  homes  men  and  women  meet 
in  the  reception  room ;  but  generally  ladies,  gentlemen  and  children 
form  separate  groups  and  chat  on  general  topics,  which  vary  according 


170 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


to  the  social  position  and  intelligence  of  the  company.  In  a  Mohamme- 
dan house  there  are  two  apartments,  the  haremlik  and  the  selamlik^the 
former  the  ladies'  reception  room  and  the  latter  for  gentlemen. 

Holidays  and  long  winter  evenings  are  usually  devoted  to  a  pleasant 
and  ancient  pastime,  which  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  happiest  features  of 
Oriental  life.  The  master  of  the  house  opens  the  door  of  the  house  and 
welcomes  the  guest  with  numerous  expressive  gestures  of  whole-hearted 
hospitality.  In  the  immediate  entrance  of  the  house  there  is  a  place 
where  the  etiquette  of  the  country  requires  you  to  remove  your  shoes 
and  put  on  slippers,  before  entering  the  inner  apartments;  but  hats, 


FIVE  GENTLEMEN  ON  A  HUNTING  TRIP. 

like  the  bonnets  of  American  ladies,  are  not  necessarily  taken  off.  After 
exchanging  graceful  salutations,  formal  civilities  and  inquiries  after  each 
other's  health,  the  guest  is  ushered  into  a  cheery  court  and  thence  into 
a  reception  room,  where  coffee,  the  universal  beverage  of  the  Levant, 
is  served  on  a  silver  tray  in  tiny  goblets  like  egg-cups.  The  square  room 
which  the  company  occupies  is  comfortably  fitted  and  arranged  with 
a  profusion  of  divans,  embroidered  cushions,  and  mattresses  for  sitting 
and  reclining,  and  perhaps  a  few  chairs.  The  floor  is  covered  with  rich 
Oriental  rugs,  while  curtains  and  shawls  of  fine  texture  hang  about  the 
sides  and  across  the  ceiling.  In  the  center  of  the  room  is  placed  a  stove 
or  a  charcoal  brazier.  The  room  is  lighted  with  bright  lamps,  the  old- 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


171 


fashioned  tallow  candle  or  olive  oil  wick  having  been  long  abandoned. 
The  lady  callers  all  cluster  about  the  genial  hostess,  who  sits  by  her 
babe  singing,  soft  and  low,  the  sweet,  simple  cradle  song;  while  the 
men  may  be  engaged  in  a  discussion  of  current  events,  though  they  often 
exchange  remarks  with  the  ladies.  The  little  folks  have  a  lively  time  by 
themselves  in  much  the  same  kind  of  merry  innocent  frolic  that  is  the 
delight  of  American  boys  and  girls.  Oriental  children,  too,  have  their 
marbles,  their  skipping  rope,  and  little  toy  plows,  into  which  cats  and 
kittens  are  harnessed  in  play.  Little  girls,  with  rosy  faces  are  clustered 
with  their  dolls  and  kittens  around  the  good  old  grandmother,  who  tells 
them  riddles  and  amusing  stories,  while  the  white  headed  patriarch, 
bowed  with  years,  begins  to  recount  anecdotes  of  his  bygone  days.  The 
remarks  of  the  venerable  man  are  always  interesting,  yet  they  reveal 
no  progress  in  the  lapse  of  time ;  for  the  Oriental  life  and  customs  have 
been  preserved  with  little  change  from  a  remote  antiquity.  The  house 
servant  is  busied  with  such  functions  as  arranging  the  shoes  in  pairs,  that 
the  guests  may  easily  find  theirs  when  departing.  After  games  and  con- 
versation, the  company  indulge  in  cigaretts,  coffee,  sweetmeats,  and  the 
bubbling  marghileh,  or  flexible  rose  water  pipe,  a  smoking  apparatus 
very  similar  to  the  hookah  of  Hindoostan,  which  is  always  filled  with 
Shiraz  tobacco.  Time  wears  pleasantly  on,  and  the  guests  are  sure  to 
depart  late,  nearly  always  with  the  satisfaction  of  having  had  an  enjoyable 
time. 

A  gathering  like  the  one  described  is  a  great  time  for  story-telling. 
Molla-Nasreddin,  a  teacher  and  notorious  wag,  who  is  the  idle  hero  or 
victim  of  many  Munchausen-like  tales  is  supposed  to  live  in  Bagdad.  Sev- 
eral stories  concerning  him  are  worth  recording  in  English. 

One  day  the  Molla  was  too  lazy  to  preach  his  usual  sermon  at  the 
mosque.    He  simply  addressed  himself  to  the  congregation,  saying: 

"Of  course  you  know,  O  faithful  Musselmans,  what  I  am  going  to 
say?" 

The  congregation  cried  out  with  one  voice: 
"No,  Molla,  we  do  not  know." 

"Then,  if  you  do  not  know,  I  have  nothing  to  say  to  you,"  replied 
the  Molla,  and  left  the  pulpit. 

Next  time  he  again  addressed  his  congregation,  saying: 

"Know  ye,  O  faithful  Musselmans,  what  I  am  going  to  say  to  you?" 

Fearing  that  if,  as  on  the  previous  time,  they  said  "No,"  the  Molla 
would  leave  them  again  without  a  sermon,  all  cried: 

"Yes,  Molla,  we  do  know."  ,  ...    jj  !   !  1 


172  PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


"Then  if  you  know  what  I  am  going  to  say,"  quietly  remarked  the 
Molla,  "of  course,  there  is  no  need  of  my  saying  it,"  and  he  again 
stepped  down  from  the  pulpit,  to  the  consternation  of  the  congregation. 

A  third  time  the  Molla  again  put  his  question : 

"Know  ye,  O  faithful  Musselmans,  what  I  am  going  to  preach  to 
you?" 

The  congregation,  determined  not  to  be  disappointed  again,  took 
counsel  on  the  question.  Accordingly  some  of  them  replied,  "No,  Molla, 
we  do  not  know,"  while  others  cried,  "Yes,  Molla,  we  do  know." 

"Very  well,  then,"  said  the  Molla,  "as  there  are  some  of  you  who  do 
know,  and  others  who  do  not  know  what  I  am  going  to  say,  let  those 
who  do  know  tell  it  to  those  who  do  not  know,"  and  quickly  left  the 
pulpit. 

A  friend  calls  on  the  Molla  to  borrow  his  donkey. 

"Very  sorry"  says  the  Molla,  who  does  not  want  to  lend  his  animal, 
"but  the  donkey  is  not  here;  I  have  let  him  out  for  the  day." 

Unfortunately,  just  at  that  moment  the  donkey  begins  to  bray 
loudly,  thus  giving  the  direct  lie  to  the  Molla. 

"How  is  this,  Molla?"  says  his  friend.  "You  say  the  donkey  is  away, 
and  here  he  is  braying  in  the  stable." 

The  Molla,  nothing  daunted,  replies  in  a  grave  manner : 

"My  dear  sir,  please  do  not  cTemean  yourself  so  low,  as  to  believe 
the  donkey  rather  than  myself — a  fellow  man  and  a  venerable  Molla 
with  a  long  gray  beard." 

The  Molla  used  to  teach  in  the  parish  school.  He  had  taught  his 
pupils  that  whenever  he  happened  to  sneeze  they  should  stand  up,  and 
clapping  their  hands  together,  cry  out  "God  grant  you  long  life,  Molla !" 

This  the  pupils  regularly  did  whenever  the  Molla  sneezed. 

One  day  the  bucket  gets  loose  and  falls  into  the  well  of  the  school 
house.  As  the  pupils  are  afraid  to  go  down  into  the  well  and  fetch  up 
the  bucket,  the  Molla  undertakes  the  task.  He  accordingly  strips,  and 
tying  a  rope  to  his  waist,  asks  his  pupils  to  lower  him  carefully  into  the 
well  and  pull  him  up  again  when  he  gives  the  signal.  The  Molla  goes 
down,  and  having  caught  the  bucket,  shouts  to  his  pupils  to  pull  him 
up  again,  but  when  they  have  drawn  him  nearly  out  of  the  well,  he  sud- 
denly sneezes.  At  this  the  pupils  immediately  let  go  the  rope,  begin  to 
clap  their  hands  together,  and  shout  down  the  well,"  God  grant  you 
long  life,  Molla !" 

The  Persians  are  eminently  a  social  people,  they  are  gay  and  en- 
tertaining, full  of  fun  and  jokes  and  story-telling  and  ready  in  repartee ; 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


173 


they  are  much  given  to  the  visiting-  and  feasting,  men  visit  with  men, 
women  with  women ;  dancing  and  amusing  themselves  beyond  measure. 

The  Persians  are  a  polite  people;  visits  are  made  at  the  festivals 
both  for  congratulations  and  condolence,  and  often  for  the  transaction 
of  business.  The  greatest  social  event  in  Persia  is  the  festival  of  New 
Year  or  (Noruz). 

This  is  the  only  festival  of  the  Ancient  Persia  that  has  not  been 
displaced  by  the  Mohammedanism.  The  Persians  never  fail  to  enter  into 
its  enjoyment. 

In  this  festival  of  Noruz,  the  Dervish  pitches  his  white  tent  before 
the  door  of  some  nobleman  and  yells,  Ya  hak  (O  truth)  until  his  claims 
to  charity  are  satisfied. 

The  letter  carrier  presents  himself  to  receive  an  anam ;  the  cook  ex- 
pects a  new  coat ;  the  miza,  and  even  physicians,  are  remembered  by 
their  patrons,  and  the  aldermen  receive  goodly  donations  from  their 
constituents. 

During  the  last  week  of  the_  old  year  the  bazaars  are  profusely 
decorated.  Gay  clothes,  carpets  and  shawls  are  exhibited  in  the  shops, 
pictures,  mirrors  and  mottoes  are  hung  up.  Arches  are  constructed 
spanning  the  streets  with  pendent  ornaments.  Villagers  crowd  in  front 
of  the  open  shops,  and  groups  of  boys  stroll  about  to  see  the  sights. 

Everyone  buys  a  collection  of  nuts,  raisins,  figs,  dates,  dried  apri- 
cots, grapejuice,  paste,  etc.  These  fruits  must  be  of  seven  kinds,  the 
names  of  each  beginning  with  a  letter  S.  The  collection  is  called  the 
yeddi  luvn.  Many  send  to  their  friends  a  plateful,  with  the  compliments 
of  the  season.  The  last  Wednesday,  called  Aklin  Chabar  Shenba,  is 
a  gala  day.  It  is  the  children's  festival,  but  the  whole  population  is 
ready  for  a  frolic. 

Clowns  play  in  a  fantastic  costume  and  ludricous  masks,  and  stroll- 
ing minstrels  with  tambourines  and  cymbals  and  leading  a  monkey,  per- 
form and  collect  shahis. 

Boys  crowd  the  streets  and  women  gather  on  the  housetops  to  see 
the  shows. 

Schoolboys  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  day  and  make  a  mock  visit 
to  their  principals. 

One  of  them,  arrayed  like  a  Kurdish  sheik,  in  long  flowing  robes, 
great  turban,  and  a  cotton  beard,  and  with  attendants  armed  like  Kurds ; 
but  with  canes  for  swords,  presents  himself  and  declares  that  a  fine  has 
been  levied  upon  the  school.  He  receives  a  present  and  they  all  go  off  to 


174 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


expend  it  on  some  of  the  good  things  in  the  bazaar.  In  some  villages, 
buffalo  fights  are  a  part  of  the  program. 

These  powerful  animals,  sometimes  made  ferocious  by  partial  in- 
toxication, make  a  rough  contest. 

This  festival  extends  two  or  three  weeks.  The  bazaars  are  generally 
closed  and  business  suspended ;  all  are  bent  on  pleasure. 

Noruz  is  a  pleasant  time  to  renew  old  acquaintance,  make  new  ones 
and  to  visit  both  rich  and  poor,  without  interfering  with  their  business 
engagements.  The  manner  of  living  is  very  comfortable.  Their  wealth 
is  not  great,  but  they  have  the  conveniences  and  luxury  which  the  coun- 
try affords,  or  which  they  think  it  necessary  to  import.  Their  houses  are 
neither  of  marble  nor  of  cut  stone,  nor  do  they  have  many  of  the  charms 
of  architecture. 

But  the  wealthy  class  in  the  cities  have  pleasant  rooms,  excellent 
food,  fruits  and  flowers  in  abundance,  troops  of  servants  waiting  their 
every  beck  and  call,  stables  full  of  valuable  horses,  incomes  easily  earned, 
plenty  of  leisure  for  an  afternoon  siesta  and  for  social  intercourse,  many 
holidays  and  dispositions  to  enjoy  them. 

Another  place  of  social  gossip  and  resort  is  the  bath  houses ;  cos- 
tume and  religion  require  frequent  ablutions.  The  men  go  to  the  bath 
houses  and  dye  their  hair  and  nails  with  henna  in  order  to  make  them 
red,  the  bath  is  also  necessary  for  the  women,  who  go  and  dress  their 
hair;  dying  of  eyelashes  requires  much  time  and  attention.  The  bath 
houses  are  below  the  level  of  the  street  so  as  to  be  supplied  with  water. 
One  may  know  when  he  is  near  the  bath  houses  by  the  long  rows  of 
colored  towels  hanging  on  the  street  walls.  The  fuel  used  is  thorn 
bushes  and  straw  and  weeds.  The  Persian  has  few  kinds  of  ornaments, 
his  theater  is  the  Takia  or  Passion  Play  of  Muhassan,  and  in  this  time 
Dervish  will  be  repeating  poetry  on  the  corners  of  the  streets. 

Singing,  music  and  dancing  are  carried  on  at  weddings  and  feasts. 
In  Persia  the  men  will  not  dance,  that  is  a  gentleman,  but  will  hire  some 
other  man  to  dance  for  him. 

The  giving  of  presents  is  a  universal  custom.  A  Persian  returning 
home  brings  a  Sokat  (or  present)  to  each  of  his  relatives  and  friends. 

The  social  life  of  man  outside  of  their  own  harems  is  separate  from 
women;  the  most  striking  fact  in  the  condition  of  women  in  Persia 
is  her  seclusion,  her  dwelling  is  shut  in  from  the  street  and  her  view 
of  the  neighbors  is  over  high  mud  walls. 

The  houses  of  the  rich  have  two  apartments ;  the  berum  and  ande- 
noon,  the  latter  is  reserved  exclusively  for  the  women,  and  is  also  called 


MANNAS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIi  "  LIFE. 


175 


harem,  or  forbidden  place.  Eunuchs  act  as  guardians  and  Stewarts  of 
his  family;  the  wife  n?ver  sits  at  a  feast  with  her  husband  nor  receives 
male  visitors. 

Visitors  must  not  inquire  about  her  health  or  refer  to  her. 

The  street  costume  for  women  is  a  contrivance  for  maintaining 
her  seclusion  even  when  she  is  out  of  the  harem. 

It  consists  of  shelvar,  chudder  and  veil.  The  shelvar  is  a  com- 
bination of  very  full  trousers  and  stockings  fitting  tightly  on  the  feet 
and  gathered  at  the  ankles.  The  chudder  is  two  yards  square,  of  cloth, 
and  is  put  on  over  the  head  and  envelopes  the  whole  head  or  person. 
The  veil  is  of  muslin  or  linen,  and  completely  conceals  her  face.  Before 


A  MOHAMMEDAN  LADY  IN  STREET  COSTUME. 

the  eyes  is  a  lace-work  through  which  the  woman  can  see  her  way,  but 
not  even  a  glance  of  her  eye  can  be  seen. 

The  street  costume  is  made  only  of  two  or  three  fabrics,  either 
blue,  black  or  barred,  so  that  among  the  many  uniformly  dressed  women 
a  man  could  not  recognize  any  one  of  his  own  wives.  As  the  women 
glide  through  the  streets  they  lift  their  veils  to  get  a  fresh  breeze  or  to 
see  the  pitfalls,  but  if  a  man  appears  unexpectedly  the  veil  goes  down 
with  a  jerk.  If  a  lady  of  high  degree  is  riding  through  the  streets  an 
attendant  goes  before  and  commands,  "Men,  turn  your  eyes  away!" 
Common  mortals  should  not  look  upon  the  shadow  of  a  princess.  Even 


176 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


old  hags,  who  are  washing  clothes  by  the  watercourses  and  beating  them 
upon  the  stones,  attempt  to  arrange  their  veils  and  chudders  so  as  to  con- 
ceal their  features.   Even  young-  girls  must  put  on  street  costume. 

A  wife  is  in  subjection  to  her  husband,  a  subjection  so  abject  that 
she  does  not  even  dream  of  the  possession  of  those  rights  which  have 
been  and  are  being  granted  to  women  in  Christian  lands.  She  occupies 
the  position  of  a  slave  to  man's  pleasure  and  comfort  and  aspires  to 
nothing  more ;  she  does  not  sit  down  to  eat  with  her  husband,  but  eats 
after  waiting  on  him.  If  perchance  she  accompanies  him  on  the  streets, 
she  walks  some  distance  behind  him.  Wife-beating  is  very  common 
and  is  allowed.  The  indoor  costume  consists  of  a  number  of  full  divided 
skirts  or  bloomers,  reaching  to  the  knees,"and  according  to  the  new  style, 
plain  white  or  black  pantaloons.  The  sack  or  kalya  is  loosefitting,  often 
not  buttoned  in  front,  with  very  long  sleeves  which  are  fastened  to  the 
wrists  with  many  loops  and  knots.  Sometimes  there  is  a  cuff  elaborately 
trimmed.  The  head  is  covered  with  a  square  of  cloth,  tied  under  the  chin, 
concealing  the  ears  and  falling  down  on  the  shoulders.  The  shoes  are 
sandals  usually  of  red  or  yellow  sheepskin,  with  pointed,  turned-up  toes 
and  an  iron  plate  on  the  heel.  In  walking,  the  heels  flop  and  clatter,  and 
the  steps  are  made  with  a  gliding  motion  to  prevent  the  shoes  from 
slipping  off. 

The  girls  look  forward  to  marriage  as  their  sole  destiny.  There  is 
no  word  corresponding  with  "old  maid."  To  remain  unmarried  for  a 
Persian  woman  is  a  sin  of  the  divine  purpose  of  her  nature. 

SMOKING  (WATER  PIPES). 

Water  pipes,  called  in  Turkey,  marghile,  and  in  Persia,  kalian.  The 
tumbak  is  soaked  in  water,  squeezed  like  a  sponge,  and  packed  in  the 
top  of  the  kalian,  a  live  coal  is  then  placed  on  it  (this  coal  must  be  made 
from  the  root  of  the  vine  or  it  would  soon  be  extinguished  by  the  damp- 
ness of  the  numbak),  and  the  smoke  is  drawn  through  the  water  that 
is  in  the  lower  bowl  of  the  kalian,  and  inhaled  through  a  flexible  serpen- 
tine stem  or  a  short  stem  of  wood.  Turks  prefer  the  former,  and  Per- 
sians the  latter.,  Of  all  the  forms  of  enjoying  this  delightful  solace  for 
the  cares  and  hardships  of  man,  this  of  smoking  through  the  kalian  is 
the  most  poetic  and  delightful,  both  for  the  elegance  of  the  method  and 
the  flavor  of  the  weed,  but  it  could  hardly  become  popular  in  America 
because  it  takes  much  time  to  light  the  pipe  and  the  care  and  cleaning 
of  it  is  laborious  and  must  be  delegated  to  the  charge  of  a  servant.  In 
Persia  every  gentleman's  house  has  a  pishkamet  whose  sole  business  is 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


177 


to  prepare  the  refreshments  and  take  charge  of  the  kalians.  The 
poorer  classes  generally  have  their  daily  smoke  by  resorting  to  a  tea 
house  in  the  bazaars,  or  under  the  plane  trees  in  the  center  of  the  village ; 
for  one  or  two  cents  they  can  enjoy  a  fifteen  minutes  rest  for  their  souls. 
Every  smoking  man  in  Persia  must  have  not  only  a  pipe,  but  also 


A  PERSIAN  SMOKING  A  WATER  PIPE. 

a  piece  of  flint,  a  piece  of  steel,  and  a  supply  of  punk,  or  tinder  in  his 
pocket  to  start  a  fire  to  light  his  pipe.  This  primitive  method  of  starting 
a  fire  is  still  in  use  there  because  matches  are  not  yet  manufactured 
there,  and  when  they  have  to  be  imported  they  are  more  expensive  than 
the  punk. 

MEN'S  COSTUME. 

The  shirt  is  unstarched,  cuff  and  collarless ;  nicely  embroidered 
about  the  neck ;  opened  in  the  front,  and  fastened  with  two  small  buttons 
at  the  left  shoulder.  The  material  is  white  linen,  silk  sewed,  while  among 
the  lower  class  it  is  dyed,  usually  in  blue.   The  trousers  are  somewhat 


ITS 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


like  bloomers,  very  loose,  evert  at  the  ankle,  and  are  held  up  by  a  cord 
of  green  or  red  silk,  cotton  or  wool.  The  material  is  of  various  colors  of 
broadcloth,  etc.,  which  by  the  laboring  class  is  dyed  in  blue  or  red. 

The  Arkalick  is  a  closely  fitting  garment,  collarless ;  the  sleeves 
reach  to  the  wrist.  In  the  middle,  the  waist  and  the  lower  part,  which 
is  ruffled,  are  sewed  together  and  opens  in  the  front*,  but  usually  but- 
toned with  little  metallic  buttons.  The  pockets  are  below  the  belt  on  each 
side.  The  length  is  almost  to  the  knees.  It  is  usually  made  of  calico 
of  a  rich  color. 

The  belt.  Some  wear  a  thick  linen  belt.  Often  a  shawl  is  used. 
Others  wear  a  two  inch  width  of  black  varnished  leather,  with  brass 
clasps,  which  often  may  have  ornaments  of  brass,  silver  or  gold. 

The  gima.  This  is  open  in  front  and  has  black  buttons,  but  seldom 
buttoned  except  in  winter;  is  longer  than  the  Arkalick  and  is  worn  over 
it.    The  material  of  this  is  usually  thick. 

The  hat  is  made  of  fine  sheepskin  fur  pasted  on  a  frame,  about 
five  to  ten  inches  high.   The  style  of  the  hat  changes  annually. 

The  hair.  The  old  people  shave  the  entire  head  except  a  "kakulta" 
which  is  left  on  the  middle  of  the  crown  and  is  long — just  like  that  of 
the  Chinese  in  the  United  States.  They  say:  "This  is  done  so  as  to 
enable  Mohammed  to  draw  up  the  true  believers  to  Paradise." 

The  beard  is  shaved  by  the  \oung  men  up  to  30  or  35,  after  which  it 
is  clipped  to  the  length  of  one-third  of  an  inch.  This  is  done  up  to  50, 
when  the  beard  is  left  to  grow  in  fuli  length. 

The  mustache  is  very  seldom,  if  ever,  shaved. 

Many  people  dye  their  hair,  beard  and  mustache  with  henna  so  as 
to  make  the  hair  darker. 

The  men  have  almost  Europeanized  this  custom,  except  in  the 
Gima  and  the  hat.  The  latter  the  government  requires  not  to  be  changed 
by  any  citizen  of  the  country. 

WOMEN'S  COSTUMES. 

Andaron  dress.  The  men,  neither  the  women,  use  any  kind  of  under- 
wear. The  shirt,  with  the  lower  order,  is  of  blue  or  white  calico ;  with 
the  higher,  it  is  silk  or  fine  cotton,  well  embroidered,  and  sometimes  of 
rich,  colored  calico.  In  length  it  is  almost  to  the  middle  of  the  thigh, 
open  in  front,  fastened  with  buttons.  Over  this  is  a  sacque,  somewhat 
loose,  with  long  sleeves,  folded  over  at  about  the  wrist. 

Shirt  or  SLalwar.  This  is  short  among  the  higher  classes,  never 
reaching  the  knee,  while  among  the  lower  classes  it  may  be  seen  even 


180 


PERSIATBYnA  PERSIAN. 


below  the  knee.  It  is  of  great  width  and  is  divided;  it  is  held  up  by  a 
thin  cord  of  cotton  or  silk.  The  skirt  is  not  one,  but  a  half-dozen,  at 
least.  The  outer  one  is  velvet,  silk,  trimmed  with  gold  lace,  etc.  Now 
a  new  style  has  been  added ;  wearing  pantaloons  under  the  skirts  reach- 
ing to  the  ankle.    This  is  done  only  among  the  rich. 

They  walk  barefooted  in  the  house,  but  outdoors  they  use  shoes. 
The  shoes  are  like  sandals,  of  sheepskin,  and  are  blue,  red  or  black, 
pointed  toes  and  turned  up ;  in  walking  the  heels  flap  and  clatter.  Socks 
are  seldom  used.  Charkad,  or  the  head  cover :  This  is  a  large  square  of 
embroidered  silk  or  cotton,  folded  in  a  manner  that  will  help  to  display 
the  corners,  and  fastened  under  the  chin ;  this  is  very  valuable. 

Often  when  by  themselves  or  with  their  husbands  the  women  are 
bareheaded.  No  support  of  any  kind  is  worn  by  the  Persian  women, 
and  the  beautiful  figure  of  youth  is  lost  soon  after  maturity. 

The  hair  is  uually  black  and  very  long  and  is  plaited  into  numerous 
little  tails,  reaching  almost  to  the  knees,  and  often  false  hair  is  used.  In 
front,  the  hair  is  parted  in  the  middle  and  frequently  has  bangs.  The 
hair  is  usually  painted  or  colored  with  henna. 

The  face.  The  eyebrows  are  widened  and  painted  until  they  ap- 
pear to  meet  on  the  forehead,  and  there  may  be  seen  shammoles,  or 
stars.  The  eyes  are  colored  with  keylah,  which  is  supposed  to  be  benefi- 
cial to  the  eye;  the  eyes  are  black  and  brown,  never  blue.  The  cheeks 
are  painted. 

The  jewelry.  The  women  of  Persia  delight  in  jewelry  and  display 
various  ornaments ;  bracelets,  necklaces,  breast-beads  and  coins,  anklets, 
car,  nose  and  finger  rings,  and  at  the  end  of  their  long  hair,  attached 
by  ribbons,  are  jewelry  and  coin;  all  these  may  be  of  brass,  silver  or 
gold. 

Moslem  street  dress.  The  women  wrap  themselves  in  a  large  blue 
or  black  sheet  called  chad-ra;  this  is  hanging  partly  over  the  shalwar, 
inside  of  which  are  the  feet ;  over  the  eye  is  three-quarters  of  a  yard 
of  linen  as  a  veil,  perforated,  about  two  inches  square,  with  minute 
holes.  The  Assyrian  and  Armenian  women  dress  alike,  but  altogether 
diffrent  from  the  Moslem. 

THE  RACE  AND  CHARACTER. 

The  Persians  are  of  Aryan  race.  The  followers  of  Zoroaster;  the 
old  Persians  never  gave  themselves  any  other  title  but  Aryavo  Daughavo, 
i.  e.,"Ayran  races."  Again  the  name  of  Darius  is  found  on  the  monu- 
ments, "Darius  a  Persian  son  of  a  Persian;  Aryan  of  Aryan  race."  They 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


181 


claim,  even  now,  and  are  known  by  the  people  at  large  to  be  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Aryan  race. 

Character.  Persians  are  of  medium  statue,  strong,  and  as  a  rule 
healthy.  They  are  clean,  sharp  in  business,  skillful  and  artistic;  alert, 
active  and  somewhat  enterprising,  although  they  take  things  easy;  social, 
entertaining,  hospitable,  well  disposed  to  a  foreigner  and  ready  to 
adopt  his  ways ;  always  show  respect  to  their  elders  or  superiors  in  rank, 
as  may  be  seen  by  their  keeping  a  step  behind.  Fond  of  humor,  delight 
in  music,  although  they  have  only  stringed  instruments.  In  the  past  they 
were  given  much  to  poetry.  Their  poets  and  books  are  known  at  Poet 
"Firdusi,"  who  wrote  "Shah-na-ma,  and  Sheik  Sadi,  of  Sheraz,  who 
wrote  "Bustan"  or  "Fruit  Garden,"  and  "Goolistan,"  or  'Rose  Garden.'*' 

SENTIMENTAL  LITERATURE. 

If  Greece  had  her  Homer,  Italy  her  Dante  and  England  her  Shakes- 
peare and  Tennyson,  Persia  is  equally  proud  of  her  Omar  Khayyam, 
Firdusi,  Hafiz,  Nizami  and  Sa'de,  whose  exquisite  pearls  have  been 
great  inspiration  and  stimulant  to  thousands  of  youths. 

Their  writings  are  sentimental  and  mystic  in  style,  tender  and 
pathetic  in  thought,  and  beautiful  and  flowery  in  language.  One  of  the 
foremost  of  the  Persian  poets  is  undoubtedly  Nizami,  of  Ganja,  who 
lived  in  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Romantic 
epoch,  and  has  contributed  more  love  songs  to  the  Persian  literature 
than  any  other.  One  of  his  best  productions  is  his  story  entitled  "Laili 
and  Majuun."  Two  ardent  lovers  whose  misfortune  and  devoted  affection 
excite  tears  of  sympathy  and  interest  in  all  the  East.  Majuun  was  the 
son  of  a  chieftain  and  Laili  the  daughter  of  a  humble  Arab  who,  never- 
theless, possessed  all  the  pride  of  his  desert  race.  Laili  was  so  beauti- 
ful and  charming  that  when  Majuun  first  gazed  upon  her  flashing  dark 
eyes,  and 

The  soft  expression  of  her  face, 
Destruction  stun  his  burning  brain 
Nor  rest  he  found  by  day  or  night — 
She  was  forever  in  his  sight. 

As  Laili's  people  were  accustomed  to  wandering  in  the  desert,  they 
one  day  folded  their  tents  and  went  to  the  mountains  with  their  families 
and  cattle,  leaving  no  trace  of  their  march,  and  cutting  off  every  possible 
way  for  the  two  lovers  to  communicate  with  each  other.  Majuun  became 
almost  insane  in  the  vain  search  after  his  love  through  the  groves  and 


182 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


glens  of  the  wilderness  and  the  solita.ry  rocks  of  the  mountains.  At 
length  his  father,  alarmed  by  his  condition,  took  an  organized  band 
and  went  in  search  of  their  tribe.  Finding  them  in  the  mountain  strong- 
hold he  made  preparations  of  marriage  for  his  son  to  the  maiden,  but 
in  such  a  conceited  and  haughty  way  that  he  received  a  very  cold  and  un  - 
favorable message  in  response.  The  chieftain,  indignant  and  full  of 
anger,  took  his  homeward  trip,  when  poor 

Majuun  saw  his  hopes  decay, 

He  beat  his  hands  and  garments  tore, 

He  cast  his  fetters  on  the  floor 

In  broken  fragments  and  in  wrath 

Sought  the  dark  wilderness  path ; 

And  there  he  went  and  sobbed  aloud, 

Unnoticed  by  the  gazing  crowd. 

Once,  while  wandering  near  the  camps  of  the  Arabs,  he  was  seen 
by  some  relations  of  Laili,  who  represented  him  as  an  insane  youth  of 
the  desert.  The  maiden,  recognizing  her  lover  in  their  description,  re- 
joiced over  the  tidings,  though  she  feared  to  go  out  to  meet  him,  dread- 
ing her  father's  wrath,  but  anxiously 

From  morn  to  eve  she  gazed  around 
In  hopes  her  Majuun  might  be  found. 

Once,  while  sitting  at  a  fountain  under  a  shady  cypress  tree  near 
the  encampment,  with  bright  hopes  of  chancing  to  see  her  beloved,  she 
mournfully  sang  her  faithfulness  : 

Oh  faithful  friend  and  lover  true, 
Still  distant  from  thy  Laili's  view ; 
Still  absent,  still  beyond  her  power 
To  bring  thee  in  her  fragrant  bower. 
Oh!  noble  youth,  still  thou  art  mine, 
And  Laili,  Laili,  still  is  thine. 

While  she  was  thus  chanting  her  love  song  under  the  cool  shade  of 
the  tree  a  stranger,  a  princely  youth,  by  name  Ibusallaam,  passed  by. 
His  eyes  rested  upon  the  crimson  lips  and  beaming  softness  of  her  dark 
eyes.  Electrified  by  her  grace  and  beauty,  he  hurried  to  her  father  with 
a  plea  for  his  daughter's  hand.  Because  of  his  kingly  apparel  and  daz- 
zling ornaments  he  was  favored  by  the  father  of  Laili,  who  gave  his  con- 
sent to  the  proposed  union.  The  poor  Majuun  may  wander,  threatened 
and  tried  to  induce*  his  friend  to  fight  the  cruel  Arab,  but  all  is  in  vain, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


183 


The  contract  is  signed  and  the  father  has  pledged  his  word  of  honor. 
The  new  lover  brings  his  costly  gifts,  a  long  line  of  camels,  all  laden 
with  embroidered  robes,  beautiful  rugs  and  carpets,  silks  of  all  kinds 
and  the  most  valuable  gems  to  be  laid  at  the  bride's  feet.  The  rattle  of 
the  drums  and  the  shrieks  of  the  pipes,  the  music  for  the  marching 
steeds,  announces  the  coming  of  the  bridegroom,  dressed  in  the  richest 
cassimere,  and  smiling  at  each  step  like  the  rising  sun.  The  wedding 
takes  place  in  due  time,  although  against  the  maiden's  will,  those  pitiful 
pleadings  were  unheard  and  uncared  for  by  any  mortal.  Still  she 
cherishes  Majuun's  memory ;  the  tenderest  feeling,  though  the  wife  of 
Ibu-Sallaam  now. 

Deep  in  her  heart  a  thousand  woes 
Disturbed  her  day  and  night's  repose ; 
A  serpent  at  its  very  core, 
Writhing  and  gnawing  evermore, 
And  no  relief — a  prison  room 
Being  now  the  lonely  sufferer's  doom. 

The  rolling  years  and  the  whirling  months  did  not  bring  any  sooth- 
ing to  the  heartache  of  Laili.  She  sat  quietly  in  her  prison  tower,  watch- 
ing the  circling  of  the  sun  by  day  and  the  flashing  of  the  stars  by  night, 
with  but  a  fainting  hope  in  her  sad  heart  for  her  Majuun.  Once,  while 
sitting  in  her  chamber,  meditating  on  her  fate,  she  heard  an  unusual 
noise  below;  shrieks  and  wailing  cries,  a  great  confusion  in  the  family. 
A  messenger  entered  with  a  death  note  announcing  the  death  of  Ibu- 
Sallaam.  Although  the  message  was  a  star  of  hope  and  a  benediction 
to  her  heart,  yet  to  fulfill  the  Arab  law  she  assumed  the  garments  of  woe 
and  wept  with  the  rest. 

But  all  the  burning  tears  she  shed 
Were  for  Majunn,  not  the  dead. 

When  the  prescribed  years  of  mourning  were  fulfilled  she  was 
freed  from  her  rock  bound  tower.  She  called  her  trusty  servant  boy 
and  sent  a  hasty  message  to  Majuun.  She  appointed  a  time  and  place 
for  the  two  lovers  to  meet  in  communion  sweet.  She  made  her  way 
through  groves  of  palms  and  bowers  of  roses,  not  stopping  until  she 
saw  the  haggard  form  of  her  lover.  Stepping  gently  to  his  side  she  laid 
her  hand  upon  his  arm  and  said : 

<cAh,  Majuun,  it  is  thy  Laili  that  has  come."  As  he  recognized 
the  familiar  voice  and  the  gentle  touch,  overcome  with  emotion,  he 
fainted  at  her  feet. 


184 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


His  head  which  in  the  dust  was  laid, 
Upon  her  lap  she  drew,  and  dried 
His  tears  with  tender  hand,  and  pressed 
Him  close  and  closer  to  her  breast ; 
"Be  here  thy  home,  beloved,  adored; 
Revive,  be  blest — Oh!  Laili's  Lord!" 

At  Tast  he  breathed,  around  he  gazed, 
As  from  her  arms  his  head  he  raised ; 
"Art  thou,"  he  faintly  said,  "a  friend 
Who  takes  me  to  her  gentle  breast? 
Dost  thou  in  truth  so  fondly  bend 
Thine  eyes  upon  a  wretched  distressed ! 

"Are  these  thy  unveiled  cheeks  I  see? 
Can  bliss  be  yet  in  store  for  me? 
Is  this  thy  hand,  so  fair  and  soft? 
Is  this,  in  sooth,  my  Laili's  brow? 

"In  sleep  these  transports  I  may  share, 

But  when  I  wake — 'tis  all  despair ! 

Let  me  gaze  on  thee — e'en  though  it  be 

An  empty  shade  alone  I  see. 

How  shall  I  bear  what  once  I  bore, 

When  thou  shalt  vanish  as  before?" 

To  this  Laili  responded  quickly  and  readily : 

Here  in  this  desert  join  our  hands, 
Our  souls  were  joined  long,  long  before ; 
And  if  our  fate  such  doom  demands, 
Together  wander  evermore. 
Oh,  Majuun !  never  let  us  part. 
What  is  the  world  to  thee  and  me? 
My  universe  is  where  thou  art : 
And  is  not  Laili  all  to  thee? 

Majuun,  knowing  that,  according  to  the  Arab  law,  he  could  not  make 
her  his  wife,  with  tearful  eyes  and  faltering  voice,  answered  : 

How  well,  how  fatally  I  love, 
My  madness  and  my  misery  prove ; 
All  earthly  hopes  I  could  resign — 
My  life  itself  to  call  thee  mine. 
But  shall  I  make  thy  spotless  name 
That  sacred  spell — a  word  of  shame? 
Shall  selfish  Majuun's  heart  be  blest, 
And  Laili  prove  the  Arab  jest? 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


185 


The  city's  gates  though  we  may  close, 
We  cannot  still  our  conscience's  throes. 
No,  we  have  met,  a  moment's  bliss 
Has  dawned  upon  my  gloom  in  vain; 
Life  yields  no  more  a  joy  like  this, 
And  all  to  come  can  be  but  pain. 

He  clasped  her  close  to  his  aching  heart,  and  kissed  her  sorrow- 
fully his  last  good-bye. 

Accompanied  by  her  servant  she  went  back  to  her  home  and  lived 
a  most  solitary  life.  The  time  of  life's  sunset  drew  rapidly  nigh.  She 
called  her  mother  to  her  bedside  and  entreated  that  when  she  was  dead 
Majuun  might  be  allowed  to  weep  over  her  grave. 

After  she  was  gone,  the  faithful  servant  took  the  tidings  to  the  poor 
love-stricken  Majuun.  He  made  his  way  weepingly  to  the  grave  and 
mourned  over  her  for  weeks.  At  last  he  was  found  with  his  head  resting 
upon  the  tomb  and  the  peaceful  touch  of  death  upon  his  brow. 

Laili's  tomb  was  opened  and  they  laid  the  still  heart  beside  her  own. 

One  promise  bound  their  faithful  hearts — one  bed 
Of  cold,  cold  earth  united  them  when  dead. 
Severed  in  life,  how  cruel  was  their  doom 
Ne'er  to  be  joined  but  in  the  silent  tomb. 

Another  of  Nizami's  productions  is  his  story  of  Shirin  and  Farhad, 
two  other  lovers,  whose  devotion  and  sad  life  is  no  less  thrilling  and 
sentimental  than  that  of  Laili  and  Majuun.  Some  of  the  Persian  schol- 
ars even  admire  it  more.  Shirin  was  the  betrothed  of  the  King  Khos- 
roe  Parwiz  and  Farhad  was  a  famous  sculptor  in  his  employment.  These 
two  fell  in  love  with  each  other,  and  the  king,  becoming  aware  of  it, 
promised  to  give  her  to  him  if  he  could  execute  the  impossible  task  of 
bringing  to  the  city  the  abundant  waters  of  the  mountains.  Farhad 
set  himself  to  the  herculean  labor,  and  to  the  horror  of  the  king,  nearly 
accomplished  it,  when  Khosroe  Parwiz  dreading  the  advancing  necessity 
of  losing  Shirin,  or  being  dishonored,  sent  to  inform  him  of  her  death. 
Being  at  the  time  on  top  of  a  precipice,  urging  on  the  work  of  the  aque- 
duct, the  news  filled  him  with  such  ungovernable  despair  that  he  threw 
himself  down  and  was  killed. 

THE  PASSIONATE  LOVE  SONGS. 

There  are  numerous  love  songs  in  Persia  that  have  never  been  re- 
duced to  writing.  The  musicians  sing  them  with  greatest  ardor,  and 
are  always  listened  to  with  breathless  attention.   One  of  the  most  popu- 


1 86 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


lar  songs  of  the  Persians  is  the  story  of  the  two  lovers,  Asley  and  Karam. 

They  lived  several  hundred  years  ago  in  Oroomiah.  According 
to  the  legend,  Asley  was  the  daughter  of  a  Nestorian,  a  man  of  con- 
siderable means,  and  from  the  well  known  family  of  the  Maleks,  who 
lived  in  a  pretty  villa  a  few  miles  east  of  the  city.  The  daughter  was 
celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  gracefulness.  She  spent  most  of  her  time 
by.  a  marble  fountain  just  at  the'  outskirts  of  the  woods,  instructing  her 
maids  in  caring  for  the  plants,  vines  and  flowers  that  grew  so  luxuriantly 
in  her  father's  exquisite  garden.  She  is  represented  as  always  dressed 
in  her  flowing  Oriental  costumes,  embroidered  richly  in  silk  of  rarest 
value,  whose  varied  colors  were  constantly  reflected  in  the  crystal  waters 
of  the  gushing  fountain.  The  artistic  garden,  the  beautiful  girl  and  the 
refreshing  fountain  were  objects  of  special  pilgrimage,  and  all  passers-by 
admired  the  unframed  work  of  art. 

But  it  was  viewed  with  the  added  fascination  of  novelty  by  Karam, 
the  son  of  a  wealthy  Mohammedan  of  a  neighboring  village.  Once,  as  he 
was  hunting  in  the  adjoining  woods,  his  "Lala-man,"  (guardian)  was 
holding  the  "kurgoon"  (a  trained  bird),  and  as  he  let  it  fly  to  start  up  a 
flock  of  birds  that  they  might  shoot  into  them,  the  bird  made  a  peculiar 
sound ;  awe  stricken  by  the  lovliness  of  a  woman,  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  master  and  the  guardian  to  the  living  picture  at  the  fountain. 
Karam,  beholding  the  beauty  and  grace  of  her  divine  countenance,  loved 
her  from  that  very  moment  and  made  up  his  mind  to  marry  her.  For- 
getting his  hunting,  he  sat  under  the  shade  of  the  palm  tree,  and  inspired 
by  her  beauty,  wrote  poems  upon  the  palm  leaves  and  sent  them  to  her 
by  the  "Lala-man."  Asley,  in  answer,  wrote  poems  of  love  to  her  lover 
in  the  forest,  which,  with  their  messages  of  love  and  encouragement, 
the  guardian  joyfully  returned  to  his  master. 

The  years  passed  by.  The  lover's  patience  being  exhausted,  accord- 
ing to  custom  Karam  goes  to  his  father,  and  with  pathetic  pleading,  per- 
suaded him  to  visit  her  father  on  a  love  mission.  But  the  difficulties  in 
the  way  seemed  as  great  and  high  as  the  everlasting  hills.  There  were 
not  only  social  problems  to  be  solved,  but  religious  differences,  one  be- 
ing a  Mohammedan,  the  other  a  Nestorian  Christian.  After  many 
heated  debates  the  Malek  gave  his  decisive  answer,  that  it  was  impossible 
for  him  to  marry  his  daughter  to  the  richest  Mohammedan  upon  the  face 
of  the  earth.  Thus  the  father  of  the  lover  returned  to  his  home  with  no 
word  of  hope  for  his  only  son.  But  Karam,  nothing  daunted,  made  his 
way  to  the  woods  near  his  sweetheart's  home  and  sung  the  sweetest 
stories  of  his  love,  and  wept  bitterly  over  his  disappointment  for  ten 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


187 


long  years,  so  that  her  father  was  unable  to  persuade  her  to  marry  any 
one  else.  Tradition  says  his  grief  was  so  intense  that  the  willows  and 
palms  have  wept  ever  since  in  sympathy  with  him. 

After  ten  more  years,  Asley's  father,  being  alarmed  by  the  threats 
of  the  youth  and  the  mental  depression  of  his  daughter,  sold  all  his  pos- 
sessions, and,  taking  his  daughter,  started  on  a  long  journey  northward 
to  Russia,  thinking  in  this  way  to  get  rid  of  the  young  Moslem. 

But  the  love-insane  Karam,  bidding  good-bye  to  his  parents  and 
home,  followed  the  trace  of  his  "Y'ai"  singing  touchingly : 

Oh,  Justice !    I  appeal  in  behalf  of  my  misfortune. 

I  have  left  my  friends  and  fatherland. 

I  am  a  grief-stricken  wanderer 

After  my  missing  black-eyed  Asley. 

Though  far  thou  may'st  sojourn : 

'Twill  not  discourage  me  to  follow. 

If  necessary  I  will  enter  into  thy  Church 

And  bow  with  confession  before  thy  cross. 

The  maiden's  parents  settled  at  length  in  a  Russian  town — a  lonely 
family  in  a  strange  land.  One  evening,  while  Asley  was  sitting  on  the 
roof  of  the  house  enjoying  the  mountain  scenery,  she  heard  below  her 
the  tune  of  a  Persian  love  song,  sung  by  a  wandering  minstrel.  She 
instantly  recognized  her  faithful  lover's  voice  and  her  fainting  hopes 
revived  with  joy.  After  wandering  around  and  singing  his  love  story 
for  awhile,  he  thought  he  would  change  his  appearance  in  order  to  go  to 
her  home  without  .being  recognized  by  her  parents.  In  this  way  he 
could  at  least  get  a  chance  to  see  his  beloved  "Y'ai."  Allowing  his  hair 
and  beard  to  grow  long,  he  assumed  the  garb  of  a  Dervish  "holy  man" 
and  went  to  the  door  and  knocked.  The  servant  came.  He  said  to 
the  servant: 

"I  am  a  man  of  God,  a  dervish,  and  have  been  suffering  from  tooth 
ache  for  some  days  and  have  come  to  ask  the  mercy  of  your  mistress 
to  relieve  my  pain."  (The  mother  of  Asley  is  supposed  to^have  been  a 
dentist).  She  took  him  to  her  office  and  called  her  daughter  to  hold 
his  head  while  she  was  pulling  the  tooth,  as  the  servant  had  reported 
the  Dervish's  trouble  to  her  mistress,  who  went  to  the  door  and  welcomed 
him  in  with  promises  that  she  would  make  every  effort  to  relieve  his 
pain. 

Both  daughter  and  the  patient  wept  bitterly.  The  mother  thought 
the  Dervish  wept  because  of  his  pain,  and  the  daughter  from  sympathy. 

After  the  first  tooth  was  pulled  the  Dervish  said :  "Pull  the  other 
by  its  side,  for  it  pains  me  too," 


L88 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


She  pulled  that  one  and  then  he  ordered  still  another  till  all  of  his 
teeth  were  gone.  Then  having  no  further  pretext  for  remaining,  he 
took  his  head  from  Asley's  lap  and  said: 

.  "I  have  had  thirty-two  teeth  pulled,  but  did  not  feel  any  pain  because 
my  head  was  in  the  arms  of  my  love." 

After  singing  a  song,  he  begged  to  be  allowed  to  rest  his  weary  bones 
over-night  in  the  comfortable  home.  Next  morning  he  made  himself 
known  to  Asley's  parents,  who  wearied  with  the  attempt  to  keep  them 
separated,  consented  to  their  marriage. 

But  the  end  of  their  devotion  was  indeed  pitiful.  The  night  they 
were  wedded  it  grew  very  cold.  Asley  drew  her  lover's  seat  near  to  the 
great  log  fire.  As  the  legend  goes,  the  inward  burning  fire  of  his  long 
smothered  passion  was  kindled  by  the  Outward  warmth  into  visible 
flame.  Asley,  terrified  at  seeing  her  newly  made  husband  burning  to 
death,  as  she  supposed,  hastily  snatching  a  pitcher  of  oil,  supposing  it  to 
be  water,  poured  it  upon  him.  This  so  greatly  increased  the  raging 
fires  that  her  own  intense  love  also  burst  into  flame.  She  threw  her 
arms  about  her  husband  and  together  they  were  consumed  to  ashes. 
Such  was  the  devoted  faithfulness  and  loyalty  of  the  two  lovers,  and 
such  was  the  unfortunate  end  of  their  career. 

There  is  a  beautiful  fountain  in  Geogtape,  a  village  about  four  miles 
from  Oroomiah  which  to  this  day  bears  the  name  of  Asley.  Travelers 
visit  the  place  with  great  interest  and  often  with  tears  of  sympathy  and 
admiration.  , 

SOCIAL  AND  DOMESTIC  LIFE  IN  PERSIA. 

The  birth  of  a  child  is  usually  awaited  with  a  great  deal  of  agon- 
izing anxiety.  At  the  announcement  of  the  birth  of  a  baby  boy,  the 
servants  have  a  glorious  time.  They  joyfully  take  the  tidings  to  their 
master,  from  whom  they  are  certain  to  receive  gifts  and  hear  good 
words.  The  congratulations  of  friends  and  relations  will  begin  to 
pour  in  from  all  quarters  to  the  happy  father,  and  it  will  be  an  occasion  for 
rejoicing  and  festivity.  The  father  will  deem  it  a  privilege  to  entertain 
his  friends  as  an  expression  of  his  personal  gratification.  Noise,  festivity 
and  music  will  fill  the  atmosphere  with  the  echoes  of  a  merry  company. 
Everybody  is  happy  because  a  son  is  born,  one  who  will  succeed  his 
father,  keep  up  the  family  record  and  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
race. 

But  when  a  daughter  is  born  there  will  be  no  giving  of  gifts,  no 
festivity,  no  music  and  no  entertainments.   Everybody  about  the  house, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


ISO 


the  very  atmosphere  will  be  doleful  and  gloomy,  as  though  the  mourn- 
ing over  the  loss  of  a  precious  child  was  already  begun.  The  servants 
dread  to  take  the  tidings  to  their  master,  realizing  the  disappointment 
that  will  follow.  When  the  father  hears  the  message  he  will  be  in  a  woe- 
ful condition.  Taking  his  pipe,  he  will  engage  in  an  endless  puffing, 
as  though  thus  to  mitigate  his  sorrow.  The  poor  mother's  grief  is  most 
sincere  and  pitiful.  She  weeps  bitterly  when  her  friends  come  to  her, 
appreciating  her  situation.  They  address  her  with  comforting  words 
and  encouraging  prospects. 

Both  mother  and  infant  will  be  objects  of  hatred  to  the  cruel 
father  and  the  rest  of  the  family.  No  word  of  comfort  will  be  given  to 
her  by  them.  No  kiss  of  affectionate  love  and  no  help  in  time  of  pain 
and  sorrow. 

It  is  the  custom  of  the  friends  of  the  married  couple  on  the  wedding 
day  to  sincerely  express  their  good  wishes  by  repeating  the  common 
saying,  "May  your  wedded  life  be  long  and  peaceful  with  many  sons 
and  no  daughters." 

The  child  is  salted  on  the  day  she  is  born  according  to  an  ancient 
custom,  and  subjected  to  the  superstitions  so  carefully  practiced  among 
the  women.  If  it  is  a  boy  no  one  can  see  his  face  for  at  least  three 
months  because  the  little  thing  is  so  precious  that  peradventure  any  one 
looking  on  him  he  might  die. 

A  talisman  will  soon  be  brought,  on  which  are  written  prayers 
and  verses  from  the  Koran.  This  is  to  be  fastened  on  the  right  arm 
or  put  somewhere  near  the  body  to  preserve  him  from  sickness  and 
especially  the  evil  eye. 

No  mother  allows  any  one  to  praise  her  baby  boy;  will  usually  dress 
him  in  unbecoming  clothes  and  keep  him  dirty,  fearing  that  if  he 
should  look  too  handsome  and  attractive,  the  evil  eye  might  cause  his 
death  or  illness ;  she  will,  however,  do  all  that  is  in  her  power  to  make 
him  comfortable.  When  he  cries  she  is  ready  to  rock  him  to  sleep, 
singing  the  sweetest  baby  songs  in  his  ears,  and  kissing  his  precious 
cheek  because  he  is  a  son  and  a  precious  gift  of  God.  But  the  unfor- 
tunate little  daughter  will ,  have  no  more  attention  than  the  domestic 
animal  at  first.  At  the  end  of  seven  days  she  will  be  put  into  a  hard 
cradle,  wrapped  tightly  in  swaddling  clothing.  Sometimes  she  will 
not  be  moved  for  a  whole  day  or  night,  and  when  she  is  removed  it  will 
be  only  for  a  little  while.  When  she  cries  the  mother  is  slow  to  attend 
to  her,  and  at  best  the  only  thing  the  mothers  do  for  them  when  they 
cry  is  to  rock  them  in  a  rough  cradle,  which  does  not  add  much  to<  their 


190 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE.  19i 

comfort,  nor  soothe  them  into  silence.  After  a  considerable  amount 
of  singing  and  harsh  speaking  most  likely  the  mother  will  get  angry 
and  tired  and  leave  the  little  creature  alone  to  cry  until  it  can  cry  no 
more  because  utterly  exhausted.  They  bind  the  eyes  of  a  child  very 
tightly  with  a  handkerchief  for  the  first  ten  or  fifteen  days,  this  they 
suppose  protects  them  from  nervousness  caused  by  seeing  the  light  for 
the  first  time.  Again,  they  never  take  the  girls  out  of  doors  for  the 
first  forty  days  and  the  boys  for  three  months  because  they  believe  ill- 
ness will  be  caused  by  the  expression  of  surprise  from  the  people  that 
see  them  for  the  first  time.  Again,  their  eyes  must  always  be  filled  with 
black  powder,  which  they  think  keeps  them  from  becoming  sore  and 
makes  them  pretty  when  they  are  grown. 

As  circumcision  is  practiced  among  the  Mohammedans,  boys  re- 
ceive their  names  at  the  celebration  of  this  rite  on  the  eighth  day.  But 
at  the  naming  of  the  girl,  there  is  no  religious  ceremony,  and  no  read- 
ing from  the  Koran  or  even  praying  by  the  Mollah.  An  old  woman 
will  be  called  to  the  house,  who  will  take  the  girl  in  her  arms,  and, 
placing  her  mouth  to  the  child's  ear,  will  call  the  name  that  her  parents 
prefer  in  a  very  loud  voice,  repeating  it  three  times,  adding,  "This  is 
your  name."  At  the  age  of  6  they  will  be  put  to  work  at  home  to  help 
their  mothers,  and  at  the  same  time  to  learn  what  will  be  useful  to  them- 
selves. They  are  taught  sweeping,  washing,  cooking,  making  tea  and 
preparing  "kalian,"  the  water  pipe,  for  the  guests  and  parents ;  and 
they  will  be  expected  to  give  good  attention  to  all  kinds  of  housework. 
They  will  also  be  taught  sewing,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  crowning 
attainment  of  any  girl.  They  learn  to  do  the  most  beautiful  embroidery 
and  handwork,  for  which  the  Persian  women  have  always  been  famous, 
and  this  is  about  all  the  preparation  they  can  make  for  theij;  future 
life  as  a  married  woman. 

All  education  is  confined  to  the  male  sex  only,  and  very  seldom 
to  the  female,  who  might  be  the  daughters  of  prominent  lords  and  men. 
The  customs  that  require  the  strict  seclusion  of  females,  prevents  them 
attending  school,  consequently  only  a  few  wealthy  families  will  supply 
special  tutors  for  their  daughters.  This  teacher  generally  is  a  Mollah, 
who  is  a  pious  man,  a  very  old  man  and  nearly  blind.  As  these  blind 
Mollahs  know  the  Koran  by  heart,  they  make  very  good  teachers.  He 
will  be  permitted  to  go  to  the  women's  apartment  in  the  house  and  take 
a  seat  at  one  end  of  the  room,  while  the  pupil  sits  at  the  other ;  some 
elderly  women  will  be  present,  while  the  teacher  drills  the  pupils  in  read- 
ing the  Koran  and  explains  its  teachings  to  them. 


192 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


GIRL'S  LIFE  AND  MARRIAGE. 

One  of  the  questions  most  frequently  asked  me  by  the  young-  peo- 
ple of  this  country  is  concerning  the  courtship  and  marriage  of  our 
Eastern  youth.  The  frequency  of  this  question  has  led  me  to  conclude 
that  this  is  a  favorite  theme  of  young  Americans. 

Oriental  harems  have  been  the  basis  of  many  a  delusive  fiction,  for 
the  secluded  privacy  of  their  indoor  life  has  thrown  about  them  the 
charm  of  mystery.  Islamism  does  not  allow  women  to  appear  in  public 
save  when  they  are  closely  veiled ;  and  even  at  their  homes  their  apart- 
ments are  entirely  seperated  from  those  to  which  male  callers  are  ad- 
mitted. For  centuries  the  women  of  the  harem,  isolated  from  society, 
had  no  knowledge  of  the  outside  world,  except  what  they  saw  in  their 
limited  field  of  observation  or  heard  from  the  men  of  their  own  house- 
hold, for  in  the  mosque  and  in  public  conveyances,  as  well  as  at  home, 
they  are  kept  in  special  apartments. 

What  a  contrast  to  the  American  woman,  who  is  queen  in  her  own 
land  by  right  of  her  independent  birth — that  heritage  of  every  true  born 
American  citizen!  Aishe,  Mohammed's  wife,  is  said  to  have  originated 
the  custom  of  seclusion,  and  the  traditions  and  customs  of  centuries  do 
not  readily  yield  to  innovation.  The  Arabic  word  harem  is  synonomous 
with  the  English  word  "home,"  and  means  "secret,"  or  "forbidden." 

The  old-fashioned  yeshmak,  which  once  almost  completely  hid  her 
features,  is  being  gradually  superseded  by  a  thin  gauze  veil,  which  is 
indeed  so  thin  that,  like  a  transparent  glass,  it  shows  more  clearly  the 
beautiful  countenance  of  the  hanoum  within.  Thus,  even  in  the  change- 
less East  the  "new  woman"  is  evidently  asserting  herself. 

The  ignorance,  superstitution,  and  bigotry  of  the  nation  are  largely 
the  result  of  uneducated  mothers.  In  the  absence  of  the  father  on 
affairs  of  business  during  the  day  the  child  is  under  the  direct  influence 
of  his  mother  at  home,  and  every  characteristic  of  her  conduct  has  a 
molding  influence  on  him.  If  her  words  be  wise  and  her  conduct  re- 
fined, the  child  will  thus  be  molded ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  if  she  be  igno- 
rant and  rude,  her  defects  will  be  reproduced  in  her  child.  Thus  women 
largely  determine  the  standard  of  civilization  for  their  country,  and  it  is 
altogether  the  exception  for  an  empty-headed  mother  to  bring  up. clear- 
headed, intellectual  children.  With  woman's  intellectual,  ethical,  and 
spiritual  elevation,  the  nation  rises;  while  with  her  degradation  and  hu- 
miliation, the  nation  sinks  to  the  lowest  level  of  civilization. 

Is  the  Mohammedan  woman  responsible  for  the  semi-civilized  posi- 
tion she  occupies  in  the  world?  As  has  been  indicated,  she  is  more  than 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


193 


anxious  to  take  her  true  place  among  her  progressive  sisters,  but  the 
religious  institutions  under  which  she  is  unfortunately  placed  create  all 
these  inhuman  customs — seclusion,  polygamy,  and  blind  submission  to 
ill-treatment  which  she  is  under  moral  bonds  to  obey.  The  religious  in- 
stitutions, therefore,  are  directly  accountable  for  her  sad  position.  Did 
Mohammed  live  in  the  present  era,  I  do  not  believe  he  would  approve 
of  these  customs.  The  improvement  or  elevation  of  the  condition  of 
Mohammedan  women,  then,  is  to  be  only  through  a  reformation  of  the 
Mohammedan  religion. 

The  matches  and  courtships  of  the  Mohammedans  are  beset  with 
more  difficulties  than  in  Western  countries.  Young  Mohammedans  do 
not  call  on  their  lady  friends  and  prolong  the  tale — indeed,  a  tale  of  long 
hours  among  Americans !  Most  Mohammedan  girls  cannot  even  write, 
but  many  generations  of  practice  have  developed  a  unique  system  of 
symbols  by  which  they  communicate  with  young  men  whose  friendship 
they  wish  to  encourage.  A  hanoum  or  young  lady,  sees  in  the  private 
grounds  of  a  neighbor  over  the  wall  a  comely  youth  whom  she  ad- 
mires, and  then  proceeds  to  communicate  with  him.  She  prepares  an 
affectionate  surprise,  not  with  paper  and  ink,  for  she  cannot  write,  but 
she  makes  up  an  expressive  token  of  regard  with  a  piece  of  string,  de- 
licious fruit,  fragrant  flowers,  and  pretty  bits  of  stone,  each  of  which 
has  a  meaning.  When  completed  it  is  tossed  over  the  intervening  wall, 
and  lying  near  his  favorite  ramble,  is  soon  found  and  read  like  an  open 
book.  The  thoughts  expressed  are  those  in  vogue  the  world  over  under 
like  impulses,  and  ere  long  she  will  find  an  answer  beneath  her  window 
similar  to  her  message.  This  strange  correspondence  will  continue  for 
a  varying  period.  By  and  by,  if  the  tokens  are  indicative  of  unaltering 
affection,  the  young  man  brings  the  question  of  his  matrimonial  scheme 
to  the  consideration  of  his  parents,  inspiring  them  with  the  same  zeal 
and  determination. 

After  the  engagement  has  taken  place  it  is  customary  among  the 
Mohammedans  for  the  affianced  boy  and  girl  or  their  parents  to  choose 
each  a  representative  who  meet,  or  else  the  parents  themselves  meet, 
and  decide  what  or  how  much  money  the  boy  shall  pay  to  this  intended 
wife,  if  at  any  time  after  they  are  married  he  may  wish  to  put  her  away 
by  divorce.  This  money  is  called  "kaben,"  and  the  amount  varies  from 
ten  to  one  thousand  dollars,  that  depending  largely  upon  the  standing 
financially  of  the  contracting  parties.  The  sum  being  fixed  the  two  rep- 
resentatives or  the  parents  of  the  engaged  couple,  as  the  case  may  be, 
go  to  their  priest  and  have  him  write  two  letters  of  documental  testi- 


194 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


mony,  one  each  for  the  betrothed  couple,  in  which  the  fixed  amount  of 
"kaben"  is  stated.  These  letters,  called  "kaben  letters,"  are  kept  by  each 
party  to  the  compact,  and  whenever  the  husband  grows  tired  of  his  wife 
or  dissatisfied  with  her,  he  simply  pays  her  the  stipulated  amount  of 
"kaben"  for  her  maintenance  and  is  thereby  divorced  from  her. 

If  the  husband  really  wants  his  wife  divorced  he  will  so  abuse  her 
that  she  will  be  obliged  to  say,  "Kabenem  halai,"  "Janium  azad,"  which 
means,  "I  make  my  'kaben'  legitimate  to  you.  Now  let  my  soul  free." 
She  will  then  be  divorced  and  glad  of  her  escape,  even  though  she  re- 
ceives either  nothing  or  only  a  small  sum  of  money. 

A  wife  divorced  for  three  successive  times  should  not  be  taken  back 
a  third  time  by  her  husband  until  she  had  been  married  to  another  man 
and  divorced  by  him.  After  that  her  first  husband  could  marry  her 
again.  The  number  of  wives  that  a  Mohammedan  is  allowed  to  have  is 
limited  to  four,  but  there  is  another  kind  of  wife  or  concubine  called 
"Seka."  To  the  number  of  these  that  a  man  is  allowed  to  have  there 
is  no  limit.  He  is  allowed  to  have  as  many  of  them  .as  he  wishes  and 
can  get. 

The  common  age  of  betrothal  for  a  girl  is  between  the  ages  of  7  and 
i'2 — very  seldom  over  that  age ;  but  in  many  cases  a  girl  is  betrothed  as 
soon  as  she  is  born,  or  even  before  her  birth.  I  have  known  certain 
parties  who  were  friends  before  their  marriage,  while  sitting  together 
socially  drinking,  that  one  suggested  to  make  a  contract  between  them 
that,  after  they  were  married,  if  one  had  a  son  and  the  other  a  daughter, 
they  would  marry  them — and  the  contract  was  fulfilled  perfectly ;  at  pres- 
ent the  young  man  is  dead,  but  the  young  lady  is  still  living.  In  some 
places  in  the  Kurdistan  Mountains,  the  engagement  will  take  place  as 
soon  as  a  girl  is  born;  and  in  such  cases  they  will  take  the  girl  in  their 
home  and  care,  and  bring  her  up.  The  engagement  ceremony  will  take 
place  by  first  sending  a  private  message  to  the  girl's  father,  indicating 
their  wishes.  If  the  father  favors  the  idea,  the  messenger  will  return 
with  words  of  encouragement,  and  then  the  date  of  ceremony  will  be 
fixed.  Then  the  father  of  the  boy,  taking  a  few  relatives  with  him,  with  a 
ring  and  a  pair  of  shoes,  etc.,  and  a  great  deal  of  candy  and  some  other 
confectionery,  goes  to  the  home  of  the  girl.  After  an  elaborate  saluta- 
tion, they  will  be  given  seats  and  a  general  conversation  will  take  place 
for  about  an  hour,  after  which  the  father  of  the  boy  will  mention  the 
object  of  his  coming,  addressing  the  family  with  a  few  polite  and  appro- 
priate words.  The  father  of  the  girl,  who  is  expected  to  decide  the  mat- 
ter, at  first  will  make  no  definite  answer,  but  will  say,  "The  girl  does  not 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


195 


belong  to  me,  she  has  a  grandfather  who  must  be  consulted  first;"  and 
then  the  grandfather  will  be  addressed,  and  pressed  for  a  definite  answer. 
After  a  few  moments  of  silence  he  will  place  the  matter  before  the  girl's 
uncle,  and  so  it  will  go  the  rounds  of  all  the  nearest  relatives,  each  one 
being  consulted  in  turn,  just  for  the  sake  of  ceremony  and  to  make  them 
feel  good.  At  last,  the  question  comes  back  to  the  girl's  father  for  a 
definite  answer,  and  he  will  say,  gravely,  "My  daughter  is  like  a  pair  of 
shoes  for  your  son."  That  means,  I  am  willing  to  make  the  engage- 
ment. Then  it  is  the  duty  of  the  boy's,  father  to  kiss  the  hand  of  every 
relative  of  the  girl  who  is  present.  Meantime,  the  ring  will  be  carried 
to  the  ladies'  apartment,  where  the  girl  is,  and  handed  to  the  girl  by  an 
elderly  woman,  who,  addressing  her,  will  say,  "Your  father,  your  uncles 

and  your  brother  have  betrothed  you  to   ,  and  if  you  are  willing 

to  obey  them,  you  can  express  it  by  taking  this  ring  from  my  hand  and 
putting  it  on  your  finger;"  and  the  girl  is  always  expected  to  do  it — 
but  I  know  of  a  case  where  a  girl's  desire  was  for  another  young  man, 
and  did  refuse  the  ring,  and  then  her  uncle  went  there  with  a  dagger  in 
one  hand  and  the  ring  in  the  other  and  said,  "Choose  the  ring  or  the 
dagger,"  and  she  chose  the  ring.  Then  the  presents  will  be  offered  to 
the  girl,  and  the  feast  will  be  continued  until  late  in  the  night.  Thus  the 
engagement  is  completed. 

The  duration  of  the  engagement  varies  greatly ;  some  marry  after 
six  months,  others  more  or  less,  and  it  even  continues  for  five  or  six 
years.  But  the  boy  and  girl  have  very  little  to  say  concerning  the  en- 
gagement ;  in  many  cases  they  are  too  young  to  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  it.  There  is  no  calling  upon  their  sweethearts,  or  walking  with 
them,  nor  are  they  together  in  society.  It  is  improper  for  a  girl  to  allow 
her  sweetheart  to  see  her,  as  the  love  of  a  Mussulman  is  measured  largely 
by  the  beauty  of  a  woman.  A  boy  is  naturally  very  anxious  to  see  his 
future  wife,  and  will  often  watch  eag'erly  to  meet  her  or  have  a  word 
with  her. 

The  old  women,  who  play  an  important  part  in  these  affairs,  are 
always  ready  to  stimulate  a  curiosity  of  either  party  by  pointing  out  one 
to  the  other.  Once  or  twice  during  the  engagement  the  young  man  will 
be  given  a  half  hour's  intercourse_with  his  sweetheart,  but  it  must  be  in 
the  presence  of  an  elderly  woman. 

One  of  the  special  features  of  Persian  weddings  is  the  extravagance. 
From  the  time  the  engagement  takes  place  until  the  wedding  is  over 
large  sums  of  money  are  being  spent  continually  by  both  parties,  more 
especially  by  the  bridegroom's  family.     The  wealthy  may  not  feel  the 


L96 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


pressure  much,  but  there  are  some  upon  whom  it  brings  a  heavy  burden 
of  debt  for  life.  Still  they  think  it  necessary  because  a  man's  character 
and  generosity  are  judged  by  the  style  in  which  he  marries  his  son. 

The  greatest  expense  is  what  is  called  "parcha,"  the  wedding  gar- 
ments. A  few  weeks  before  the  wedding  takes  place  both  parties  will 
send  their  representatives,  and  they  will  be  engaged  for  one,  two  or  three 
days  in  making  purchases.  Usually  they  buy  from  three  to  seven  differ- 
ent suits  for  the  bride,  giving  but  small  attention  to  the  bridegroom's 
apparel,  as  he  is  expected  to  see  after  his  own.  As  the  expenses  must  all 
be  paid  by  the  boy's  father,  the  bride's  party  is  naturally  inclined  to  be 
lavish,  while  the  other  party,  in  seeking  to  modify  their  desires,  often 
raise  quarrels  of  ill-feeling.  The  expenditure  sometimes  amounts  to 
hundreds  of  dollars,  among  the  wealthy.  When  the  "parcha"  is  taken 
to  the  bride's  home  all  the  maidens  from  the  neighborhood  get  together 
and  help  cut  out  and  sew.  Of  course  the  larger  part  must  be  done  by 
herself,  if  she  is  old  enough  to  understand  dressmaking,  and  by  her 
mother.  Very  few  people  employ  dressmakers  on  such  occasions. 

A  day  or  two  before  the  wedding  the  bridegroom's  people  will  des- 
patch two  or  three  men  to  the  villages  and  towns  of  the  neighborhood  to 
invite  all  the  friends,  relations  and  respectable  citizens.  They  carry  with 
them  candy  and  red  apples,  which  are  to  take  the  place  of  the  engraved 
cards.  Handing  a  red  apple  or  some  candy  to  the  family,  they  an- 
nounce verbally  the  day  of  the  wedding,  adding  these  words  :  "So-and-so 
sends  his  love  to  you  and  to  your  family  and  says  the  wedding  is  not 
my  son's,  but  yours ;  come  and  bring  your  family."  Then,  bidding  them 
farewell,  they  will  go  to  the  next  neighbor  and  repeat  the  same  thing 
until  their  mission  is  fulfilled.  If  there  is  a  grandee  or  official  connected 
with  either  family,  the  boy's  father  has  to  go  himself,  carrying  a  sheep 
or  a  quantity  of  sweets,  and  extend  the  invitation  to  him.  In  return  he 
will  receive  the  gift  of  a  shawl  or  tailor-made  coat  for  the  bridegroom, 
with  his  excellency's  good  wishes  and  permission  to  proceed  with  the 
ceremony. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  mention  that  it  sometimes  occurs  that  some 
of  those  invited,  from  pique  or  ill-humor,  will  decline  to  attend  the  wed- 
ding; then  the  father  of  the  boy  will  go  himself  or  send  a  near  relative 
to  pacify  them  and  persuade  them  to  come  to  the  feast.  The  weddings 
generally  last  from  three  to  seven  days. 

On  the  first  day  the  invited  guests  will  pour  into  the  home  of  the 
bridegroom,  which  will  be  opened  for  their  cordial  reception.  Every- 
body makes  himself  at  home.   Dancing,  music,  noisy  drums  and  the  un- 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


107 


controllable  excitement  of  the  merry  crowd  will  fill  the  air  the  whole  of 
the  seven  days.  The  first  three  or  four  days  are  usually  spent  in  feasting 
at  tKe  bridegroom's,  while  the  bride's  family  are  quietly  going  on  with 
their  preparations  for  their  daughter.  The  principal  part  of  the  enter- 
tainments on  these  days  is  eating.  The  home  will  be  thrown  open  for 
not  only  the  guests,  but  for  all  the  poor  people  and  the  beggars.  Some- 
times from  five  to  ten  sheep  will  be  slain,  or  one  or  two  oxen.  Quanti- 
ties of  rice  and  other  vegetables  will  be  used.  Three  times  every  day  this 
crowd  of  people  will  sit  on  the  floor  around  the  long  tables  to  eat,  of 
course  with  their  fingers,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country. 

Dancing. — Between  meals  they  will  go  out  to  the  open  court,  which 
is  like  an  amphitheater,  or  if  that  is  not  large  enough,  out  on  the  street 
to  engage  in  dancing  and  singing,  the  women  and  children  crowding 
the  flat  roofs  of  that  house  and  neighboring  ones  to  look  at  the  dancers. 
The  men  hand  in  hand  form  a  large  circle,  the  one  at  the  head,  the 
leader,  holding  a  richly  colored  handkerchief  in  one  hand,  and  swinging 
it  in  the  air,  moves  slowly  around,  the  others  following,  while  the  drum- 
mer and  flute  player  stand  in  the  center  of  the  circle  making  a  violent 
noise.  Gradually  they  begin  to  get  excited  and  become  more  and  more 
so  until  they  jump  and  leap  so  rapidly  that  their  feet  can.  hardly  be  seen 
at  all.  When  one  is  tired  another  takes  his  place  in  the  circle,  and  thus 
they  go  on  till  noon.  Sometimes  a  drum  and  flute  will  be  exchanged  for 
two  good  singers  who  sing  love  songs  for  the  inspiration  of  the  dancers. 
The  women  are  not  allowed  to  dance  with  the  gentlemen.  They  can 
dance  in  their  own  apartments  or  when  there  are  no  strangers  present. 
It  is  customary  for  each  neighbor  who  is  present  at  the  supper  table 
and  meets  with  the  strangers  there  to  take  from  two  to  five  of  them 
home  with  him  when  the  time  for  retiring  comes  and  take  care  of  them 
for  the  night.  Thus  lodgings  are  provided  for  a  great  many.  Some- 
times there  will  be  none  left  at  the  bridegroom's  house.  Then  early  in 
the  morning  the  drummers  go  about  the  street  and  summon  them  back 
for  their  breakfast. 

On  the  third  or  fourth  day  they  arrange  to  go  after  the  bride.  Some 
thirty  or  forty  of  the  choicest  young  men,  well  dressed  and  armed,  and 
if  the  bride's  home  be  at  some  distance  some  of  them  mounted  on  beau- 
tiful horses  march  toward  the  house,  where  they  will  receive  a  cordial 
welcome.  Everything  has  been  prepared  for  their  reception,  the  village 
people  will  come,  and  the  feasting  will  begin  at  the  home  of  the  bride. 
The  bride's  family  generally  look  rather  doleful  during  this  part  of  the 
performance,  probably  on  account  of  the  expense.   The  next  morning 


198 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  bride  will  be  gorgeously  decked  in  her  wedding  apparel  in  the 
women's  apartment,  a  red  veil  taking  the  place  of  the  black  one  for  the 
day  and  covering  the  whole  of  her  body.  She  is  not  allowed  even  to 
have  the  small  openings  to  see  through.  Bidding  her  folks  good-bye,  she 
is  put  upon  a  horse  saddled  for  her,  and  at  this  point  begins  a  tremen- 
dous uproar  from  the  crowd — yells,  shouts,  thundering  of  guns,  etc. 
The  bride  is  carefully  protected  from  every  danger  by  three  men,  a  "koo- 
lam"  servant  holding  the  bridle  and  leading  the  horse  and  the  other  two 
holding  her,  one  on  either  side.  Thus  the  homeward  march  begins. 
Each  one  of  the  young  men  belonging  to  the  bride's  escort  carries  a 
chicken  in  his  hand  which  either  he  catches  himself  from  the  street  or 
some  friend  catches  and  gives  to  him.  This  is  called  the  bridegroom's 
bird.  The  procession  advances  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  city  people 
often  have  these  processions  at  night  so  that  they  can  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  make  them  more  resplendent  by  fireworks,  that  is,  by  torches, 
etc. 

It  was  on  such  an  occasion  that  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins  was 
suggested  to  the  Master.  When  they  are  near  home  a  messenger  is  dis- 
patched to  carry  the  news  of  their  approach  to  the  bridegroom.  For 
this  he  will  receive  some  reward.  The  bridegroom  then  dresses  himself 
in  his  wedding  costume  and,  attended  by  his  intimate  companions,  he 
goes  out  of  his  chamber  looking  as  happy  and  gorgeous  as  the  sun  com- 
ing out  of  the  chambers  of  the  night.  This  part  of  the  ceremony  differs 
a  good  deal  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  In  some  places,  the  bride- 
groom and  his  staff  just  go  a  little  distance  to  meet  the  bride.  • 

The  Mohammedan  bridegroom  does  not  go  upon  a  housetop  to 
throw  apples  at  his  approaching  bride  as  the  Christians  do;  but  instead, 
while  the  bride  is  coming  he  and  his  comrades,  mounted  on  horseback, 
go  to  meet  her.  When  they  have  approached  to  within  a  stone's  throw 
of  her  the  groom  kisses  an  apple  and  throws  it  upon  his  bride  or,  some- 
times, he  may  ride  up  and  put  the  apple  into  her  hand.  Immediately 
after  doing  this  the  groom  and  his  party  quickly  turn  and  ride  away  as 
fast  as  they  can.  They  are  pursued  by  some  of  the  horsemen  of  the 
bride's  party,  who  try  to  catch  the  groom.  Should  any  one  succeed  in 
doing  this  he  would  receive  a  present  in  keeping  with  the  rank  and'  cir- 
cumstances of  the  bridegroom. 

On  such  occasions  the  women  do  not  appear  among  the  crowds  of 
men  to  see  the  performances.  Usually  they  cover  themselves  and  go  up 
upon  the  housetops  to  see  the  outdoor  exercises. 

At  the  time  the  bride  is  going  to  ride  on  horseback  the  streets  and 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


199 


housetops  are  thronged  with  noisy  expectant  spectators,  while  the  firing 
of  guns  and  pistols  and  the  notes  of  exciting  music  fill  the  air.  For  this 
reason  a  very  gentle  horse  is  secured  for  the  bride,  one  that  will  not  be- 
come frightened  at  all  this  noisy  tumult.  No  one  can  see  any  part  of 
her  except  her  feet,  and  when  she  appears  on  horseback,  it  is  simply  as  a 
graceful  red  figure.  When  the  bride  is  ready  the  musicians  play  a  sor- 
rowful tune  while  she  bids  farewell  to  her  parents,  who  kiss  her  and 
pronounce  their  benediction  upon  her  and  then  weep  after  her  as  she  is 
taken  and  put  upon  horseback.  Her  father-in-law  throws  a  handful  of 
copper  money  upon  her  head  to  show  his  wealth  and  liberality.  It  is 
customary  among  the  Mohammedans  to  send  a  lady  called  "Yedah" 
along  with  the  bride  to  take  care  of  her. 

In  some  places  it  is  customary  to  take  the  bride  to  the  doors  of  the 
prominent  people  of  the  place  and  nearest  relations,  before  going  to  her 
father-in-law's.  This  is  considered  a  mark  of  respect  to  such  persons, 
and  at  each  home  the  family  is  expected  to  show  their  appreciation  in 
some  way.  Some  take  a  quantity  of  raisins  and  throw  them  upon  her 
head,  as  a  symbol  of  the  "sweetness  of  the  occasion,"  while  others  throw 
a  great  deal  of  copper  money,  a  symbol  of  prosperity.  The  boys  espe- 
cially enjoy  this  part  of  the  performance  and  have  a  great  time  picking 
up  the  raisins  and  coppers  under  the  horses'  feet.  After  this  they  pro- 
ceed to  the  bridegroom's  house  and  everybody  will  retire  until  the  next 
morning,  when  dancing  and  feasting  begin  again.  The  main  feature  of 
the  next  day's  proceedings  will  be  the  welcoming  of  the  bride's  relatives 
and  friends,  who  will  come  and  bring  her  trunk  and  all  that  belongs  to 
her.  Her  trunk  must  be  opened  before  a  multitude  of  witnesses  and 
every  little  thing  in  it  spread  out  before  them.  The  contents  of  this 
trunk  are  not,  by  any  means,  entirely  for  the  bride's  own  use,  although 
she  and  her  mother  have  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  on  them.  They  are 
mostly  intended  as  presents  for  the  bridegroom's  relations  and  friends, 
and  are  the  greatest  expense  which  falls  on  her  father  in  connection  with 
the  wedding  days.  In  the  trunk  there  will  be  perhaps  some  half  a  dozen 
or  more  dresses,  aprons,  skirts,  head-dresses,  etc3,  made  for  her  by  her 
parents ;  the  rest  are  all  the  presents  that  have  been  made,  consisting  of 
side-pockets,  waist-pockets,  money  bags,  watch  covers,  woolen  belts, 
skull  caps  and  such  like,  all  of  which  have  been  exquisitely  embroidered 
by  hand.  These  will  be  distributed  among  the  numerous  relation  and 
home-folk  of  the'  bridegroom. 

If  the  bride's  father  is  wealthy  the  trunk  will  also  contain  jewels, 
precious  stones,  shawls,  cups  of  gold  and  silver;  a  "samowar,"  or  tea- 


200 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


kettle,  with  all  its  outfit ;  a  "kalian,"  smoking  pipe,  etc.  It  will  be  as 
well  to  remark  that  these  costly  gifts,  in  many  cases,  are  not  so  much  for 
the  purpose  of  expressing  the  parents'  devotion  to  the  daughter  as  for 
the  show  and  pride  on  their  own  behalf. 

On  the  next  day  the  guests  will  begin  to  depart.  In  leaving,  every 
one  extends  his  congratulation  and  presents  his  gift.  After  this  the  bride 
is  taken  to  an  apartment  prepared  for  her.  The  feasting  continues 
several  more  days  and  at  the  end  of  the  previously  fixed  time  the  wed- 
ding is  considered  ended  and  everything  is  quiet  again. 

Among  the  higher  classes  of  Mohammedans  who  live  in  cities  and 
are  very  wealthy  sometimes  the  weddings  continue  even  over  a  week. 
Several  male  cooks  are  employed  and  every  one  who  is  invited  attends  the 
wedding  every  day  during  the  whole  time,  and  all  are  provided  with 
good  substantial  meals,  consisting  mainly  of  rice  and  meats.  Several 
couples  of  musicians  are  hired  for  the  entertainment  of  the  guests.  Also 
some  Gypsies  to  dance  and  a  number  of  jugglers  of  superior  skill,  who 
make  sport  and  amusement  for  the  crowd  by  their  tricks  of  extraordinary 
dexterity.  Some  story-tellers,  singers  and  players  on  different  kinds  of 
musical  instruments  are  also  employed  for  the  occasion.  Sometimes 
prominent  wrestlers  are  also  secured.  The  musicians  play  exciting  tunes 
while  the  wrestling  continues. 

THE  DWELLING  PLACE  OF  A  MARRIED  WOMAN. 

The  Persians  have  a  strong  tendency  to  congregate  in  cities,  towns 
and  villages,  from  the  rich  capitalists  and  the  high  officials  to  the  poor 
laboring  men  and  peasants.  They  all  prefer  to  live  together  in  com- 
munities. There  is  literally  none  of  what  is  called  country  life  in  Amer- 
ica. Most  of  the  cities,  towns  and  villages  have  high,  thick  walls  of  mud 
all  around  them,  with  gates  for  entrance,  which  are  carefully  watched. 
The  reason  for  this  is,  I  suppose,  first,  for  protection  in  time  of  war.  In 
the  olden  days  the  country  was  settled  largely  by  different  hostile  tribes 
who  would  often  attack  each  other,  and  the  walls  were  a  great  protec- 
tion to  the  property.  There  were  also  numerous  robbers  and  highway- 
men whose  whole  business  was  thieving  and  pillage,  thus  constantly 
dangerous  to  life  and  commerce.  There  is  still  this  danger,  and  the 
citizens  to  insure  their  safety  live  in  communities  for  mutual  defense  and 
protection.  And,  again,  the  custom  of  secluding  the  women  has  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  it. 

The  first  visible  part  of  the  houses  of  the  first  class  from  the  street 
is  a  high,  thick  wall  that  encircles  the  whole  lot.   Through  this  there  is 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


201 


only  one  entrance — a  large  gate,  made  of  heavy  hard  wood  and  studded 
with  big,  heavy  iron  nails.  This  gate  is  kept  shut  all  the  time,  and  any- 
body that  wanted  to  get  in  would  have  to  knock  hard  in  order  to  do  so, 
calling  the  family,  who,  in  most  cases,  live  in  some  distant  part  of  the 
premises.  Walking  along  the  street,  one  can  easily  tell  the  official  house, 
because  they  have  always  about  a  dozen  or  more  men  guarding  the  gate. 
These  guards  eat,  sleep  and  live  in  the  small  rooms  opening  into  the 
gateway  on  each  side.  No  neighbor  is  allowed  to  build  his  house  higher 
than  the  mud  walls,  or  if  he  does,  he  is  not  permitted  to  open  any  win- 
dow— not  the  least  opening — into  his  neighbor's  yard,  which  could  make 
it  possible  for  him  to  look  in  upon  his  neighbor's  wife. 

The  first  apartment  we  come  to  is  called  "beroon,"  or  the  men's 
apartment.  Here  the  head  of  the  family  during  the  day  commands  his 
servants,  transacts  his  business  and  receives  his  calls.  He  comes  to  this 
apartment  by  sunrise,  having  previously  had  his  cup  of  coffee  or  tea  and 
offered  his  prayers.  And  here  he  stays  until  his  dinner  hour,  which  is 
at  twilight.  The  second  apartment  of  the  house  is  called  "anderoon," 
which  is  exclusively  for  women  and  children,  and  is  also  called  "harem," 
"forbidden  place,"  a  word  corresponding  with  zenana  or  serago.  The 
women  live  here  all  their  lives,  very  seldom  going  out  for  recreation  or  a 
breath  of  fresh  air.  No  male  persons  could  venture  to  go  to  this  apart- 
ment. If  a  man  by  mistake  or  unwittingly  should  attempt  to  make  his 
way  to  the  "forbidden  place,"  he  would  be  quickly  met  by  the  guardians 
and  eunuchs,  crying  loudly,  "Women,  away !"  and  the  man,  with  breath- 
less haste,  will  make  his  way  back,  while  the  women  would  begin  at 
once  to  conceal  their  persons  with  a  veil. 

The  custom  of  secluding  the  women  and  watching  them  so  care- 
fully has  come  down  from  many  generations.  The  kings  in  ancient  days, 
in  order  to  exhibit  greater  state  and  to  preserve  pure  lineage,  intro- 
duced it  first  into  the  country,  and  it  was  gradually  adopted  in  some 
form  by  all  classes,  except  the  wandering  nomads. 

DUTIES  OF  WOMEN  IN  PERSIA. 

One  of  the  duties  of  women  in  Persia  is  grinding  the  wheat  and 
barley  into  flour.  In  the  parts  of  the  country  where  water  is  abundant, 
water  mills  are  built,  and  in  some  other  places  they  have  what  are  called 
donkey,  buffalo  or  mule  mills,  which  are  turned  by  power  of  these  ani- 
mals. But  still  there  are  many  of  the  poor  who  cannot  afford  to  have 
their  flour  ground  at  these  mills,  and  the  women  must  grind  it  at  home  in 
the  old  fashioned  way  of  Bible  lands  and  times.    "Two  women  shall  be 


302 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


! 


grinding  at  the  mill ;  the  one  shall  be  taken  and  the  other  left."  (Matt. 
24:41.)  This  mill  consists  of  two  heavy  circular  stones  with  a  wooden 
pin  in  the  center  fastened  to  the  lower  one  passing  through  a  large  hole 
in  the  upper  one.  Into  this  hole  in  the  upper  stone,  around  the  central 
pin,  the  grain  is  poured  by  handfuls  while  the  two  women  turn  it  rapidly 
by  the  stout  handle  fastened  to  the  outer  rim  of  the  upper  stone.  The 
grain  falling  between  the  two  stones  is  crushed  into  a  coarse  flour  and 
thrown  out  around  the  edges  onto  a  large  cloth  placed  under  and  around 
the  mill  for  the  purpose  of  catching  it.  Besides  the  flour  for  the  bread 
they  prepare  every  year  a  quantity  of  cracked  wheat,  which  is  boiled 
and  dried  in  small  cakes  from  which  they  make  a  much  relished  dish 
peculiar  to  the  Persian  poorer  classes.  The  bread  is  made  up  with 
leaven,  worked  and  set  to  rise,  then  rolled  out  into  very  thin  cakes.  A 
second  woman  has  in  her  hand  a  kind  of  cushion  covered  with  heavy 
canvas.  The  thin  wafer  of  dough  is  spread  smoothly  on  this  cushion, 
which  has  a  handle  underneath  so  that  she  can  hold  it  securely.  Then 
she  slaps  the  cake  of  dough  against  the  hot  side  of  the  tandoor  (oven) 
so  that  it  sticks  and  bakes  in  a  few  minutes,  when  another  is  put  in  its 
place.   A  week's  baking,  sometimes  two  weeks',  is  done  at  once. 

Water  works  have  not  been  introduced  into  Persia  yet ;  all  the  water 
for  drinking  and  every  day  use  is  brought  from  a  distance  by  the  women. 
There  are  public  wells  or  streams  outside  of  each  village.  The  women 
go  to  these  places  mornings  and  evenings  and  carry  home  as  much  as  is 
needed.  If  it  is  a  well  they  have  no  pumps,  so  they  have  to  pull  it  up  in 
an  earthen  vessel  with  a  long  rope  and  fill  their  jars  from  that,  but  if  it 
is  a  spring  they  simply  plunge  the  jar  in  until  full,  then  lift  it,  first  on  the 
hip,  then  to  the  back  or  shoulder,  and  quickly  march  home.  They  go 
back  and  forth  this  way  until  all  their  jars  are  full,  sometimes  eight  or 
ten  times.  The  jars  are  large  and  heavy,  made  of  earthenware.  They 
hold  from  five  to  eight  gallons  of  water.  It  takes  long  practice  and 
strong  arms  to  lift  these  jars  to  the  shoulder  without  spilling  any  of  the 
water  or  dropping  and  breaking  the  jar.  But  these  women  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  the  exercise  need  no  dumb-bells  or  skipping  ropes 
for  the  development  of  their  muscles.  It  is  a  beautiful  sight  every  morn- 
ing and  night  when  scores  of  women  group  together  with  their  jars 
upon  their  backs  and  march  to  the  spring.  They  find  some  compensa- 
tion for  the  laborious  task  in  the  freedom  to  gossip  and  talk  along  the 
way,  and  look  as  if  they  really  enjoy  it.  It  reminds  one  of  the  romantic 
story  of  Abraham's  servant  and  Rebecca  at  the  well  (Gen,  24)  and  of  the 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


203 


more  spiritual  incident  of  our  Savior  and  the  woman  of  Samaria  at 
Jacob's  well. 

The  churning  is  done  in  a  large,  oddly  shaped  earthen  jar,  laid  upon 
its  side  on  what  is  called  a  saddle.  That  is  a  kind  of  hollowed  bridge, 
into  which  the  jar  fits  and  over  which  it  is  jolted  back  and  forth,  to  make 
the  butter  come.  First,  however,  the  fresh  milk  is  boiled  and  a  little 
sour  cream  or  buttermilk  added.  Then  it  is  allowed  to  stand  until  it  has 
become  perfectly  solid.  The  mouth  of  the  jar  is  then  tied  up  tight  with 
a  heavy  piece  of  canvas,  that  no  air  can  get  in,  and  the  jolting  begins. 
Gathering  the  butter,  etc.,  is  similar  to  the  same  process  in  America. 

Most  of  the  harvesting,  also,  is  done  by  women.  It  usually  begins 
in  the  early  part  of  June  and  lasts  until  the  latter  part  of  July  or  the 
first  of  August.  These  months  are  very  hard  on  the  women.  They 
have  to  be  up  early  in  order  to  finish  their  domestic  duties  by  an  hour 
after  sunrise.  Then  they  take  sickles  and  march  to  the  field,  which  is 
usually  from  one  to  two  miles  distant.  Often  one  sees  a  mother  with  her 
infant  in  a  cradle  upon  her  shoulder  and  a  sickle  in  her  hand  marching 
with  the  rest.  From  morning  until  sunset  they  toil,  with  only  two  hours 
for  rest  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  The  mothers  put  the  baby-cradle  under 
a  tree,  where  they  can  see  that  no  harm  comes  to  the  little  one,  and  can 
stop  and  rock  it  if  it  cries  very  hard.  These  harvest  months  are  the  very 
hottest  in  the  year.  The  sun  shines  with  terrific  force  during  the  day. 
While  the  women  reap,  the  men  gather  up  the  bundles  and  bind  them 
ready  to  be  carried  to  the  threshing  floor,  which  is  a  great  distance  from 
the  field.  Many  a  poor  ''Ruth"  may  be  seen  following  the  reapers,  glean- 
ing whatever  may  fall  behind.  At  sunset  they  begin  their  homeward 
journey,  tired  and  dirty.  Their  home  duties  are  to  come  afterward,  be- 
fore they  are  ready  to  rest. 

By  the  time  the  harvest  is  over,  the  vineyard  work  begins.  The 
grapes  are  then  ripe.  The  women  pick  the  ripe  and  ready  bunches,  fill- 
ing large  baskets  and  carrying  them  to  the  end  of  the  vineyard,  where 
they  are  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  be  dried  for  raisins.  This  usually  takes 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  Then  they  gather  them  and  pile  them  up  at 
home,  ready  for  the  market.  The  rest  of  the  grapes  are  made  into  mo- 
lasses and  wine.  Of  course  the  men  take  some  part  in  the  vineyard 
work,  but  most  of  it  is  done  by  the  women. 

When  a  husband  eats,  the  wife  cannot  sit  with  him  and  eat  at  the 
same  table,  but  must  always  stand  in  his  presence  with  her  arms  crossed 
while  he  eats,  ready  to  render  any  service  to  him,  like  an  accomplished 
slave.  And  after  he  has  done  eating,  she  pours  water  on  her  lord's  hands 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


205 


and  wipes  them  on  a  towel  or  her  own  chudder ;  then  she  lights  his  water- 
pipe  and  with  a  graceful  yet  slavish  bow  she  hands  it  to  him ;  and  while 
he  enjoys  it  she  serves  the  children  in  the  same  fashion,  after  which  she 
retires  to  a  respectful  distance,  her  face  turned  toward  the  black  mud 
walls,  so  that  her  lord  may  not  see  her  lips  moving,  and  finishes  the 
meal.  When  he  walks  on  the  street,  she  cannot  walk  anywhere  near 
him,  because  it  is  a  reproach'  for  a  man  to  be  seen  on  the  street  with  a 
woman,  and  also  because  she  is  so  covered  with  the  outdoor  costume. 
He  might  be  accused  of  walking  with  a  woman  who  was  not  his  wife. 
Hence,  she  never  expects  any  help  or  protection  from  him.  When  he 
goes  on  a  journey,  he  does  not  even  tell  her  good-bye,  or  consult  with 
her  about  his  trip ;  and  if  he  should  be  gone  for  years,  would  never  write 
her  a  single  letter  nor  ask  after  her  health.  If  anything  needs  to  be  at- 
tended to,  he  writes  to  his  brothers  or  father,  or  a  near  relative.  Nor 
does  he  ever  trust  his  wife  with  any  money  for  her  living ;  he  will  ask  a 
friend  or  relative  to  give  it  to  her  little  by  little.  When  he  is  in  any 
business  trouble  or  perplexity,  it  will  not  occur  to  him  to  mention  the 
fact  to  her  or  to  ask  her  advice.  On  the  contrary,  when  he  talks  busi- 
ness with  his  friends  she  must  not  listen.  And  if  she  were  in  any  mental 
or  physical  depression,  she  would  not  dare  mention  it  to  him,  for  she 
would  be  sure  of  harsh,  rough  words,  instead  of  loving  sympathy.  In 
all  these  things,  he  is  in  no  sense  a  husband  to  her,  but  only  a  lord  and 
owner. 

The  law  requires  that  females  also  make  pilgrimages  to  the  holy 
places.  Girls  at  every  age  are  allowed  to  go ;  also  children.  Widows 
under  50  years  are  not  accepted  as  pilgrims,  first,  because  of  their  prob- 
able desire  for  marriage,  and  second,  because  the  law  says  no  women 
must  undertake  a  pilgrimage  alone  for  fear  of  exposing  themselves  to 
men.  So,  in  order  to  go,  some  marry  for  this  purpose.  The  husband 
accompanies  them  thither,  and  upon  returning  either  divorces  them  or 
keeps  them  as  wives  or  concubines. 

Every  band  of  pilgrims,  when  returning  to  their  own  city,  will  send 
a  messenger  about  ten  days  in  advance  to  announce  that  in  so  many  days 
a  band  of  pilgrims  will  appear  in  the  city.  On  the  day  of  their  arrival 
many  hundred  men  will  meet  them  several  miles  from  the  city.  The 
Saylyids  ride  before  them,  crying :  "Salawats  \"  Friends  and  relatives 
kill  lambs  as  a  sacrifice  before  them.  This  sacrifice  is  a  holy  matter  and 
no  man  can  touch  it  till  its  blood  is  shed ;  but  when  it  is  beheaded  it  be-^ 
longs  to  God,  and  the  strongest  man  takes  it  for  his  own.  So  there  is 
always  quarreling  when  the  pilgrims  return.    The  acquaintances  of  the 


206 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


pilgrims  will  come  and  say :  "My  portion  be  as  thy  portion.  Blessed 
art  thou.  May  your  pilgrimage  be  accepted."  And  the  pilgrim  will 
answer :  "God  grant  that  yon  may  also  go  to  this  Holy  Place  and  re- 
ceive remission  of  sins."  Women  will  sometimes  cut  pieces  from  the 
pilgrims'  garments,  which  are  supposed  to  be  holy.  At  the  pilgrim's 
home  many  sheep  are  killed  and  a  variety  of  fine  meats  are  cooked. 
People  gather  there  to  cat  and  drink  and  they  say  to  the  host:  "God 
bless  your  pilgrimage."  He  will  answer :  "May  the  Prophet  give  you 
success  and  grant  that  you  too  may  visit  the  Holy  Place." 

WOMEN  IN  THE  CHAMBER  OF  SICKNESS  AND  DEATH. 

If  there  is  any  time  in  the  life  of  a  woman  in  the  Orient  when  this 
world  is  hard  for  her  it  is  when  she  is  in  the  sick  room  and  at  the  edge 
of  eternity.  This  is  the  last  period  of  life,  the  period  upon  which  the 
silent  shadows  of  eternity  fall  and  in  which  a  woman  takes  her  last 
farewell  of  the  mortal  body  and  flies  to  the  world  of  immortality. 
Therefore,  it  is  the  most  important  epoch  of  her  life.  It  may  be  well 
before  going  to  describe  woman's  condition  in  sickness  and  death  to 
state  briefly  the  idea  of  Islamism  with  regard  to  woman's  immortality. 
It  has  been  currently  believed  that  according  to  the  teaching  of  Islam 
woman  has  no  soul,  that  she  is  only  a  higher  species  of  animalism 
whose  life  is  ended  at  death.  Three  facts  have  led  the  people  to  this 
conclusion:  First,  the  inferiority  of  women  to  men  as  determined  by 
the  Koran,  for  it  is  written,  "Men  are  superior  to  women  on  account  of 
the  qualities  with  which  God  has  gifted  the  one  above  the  other,  and  on 
account  of  the  outlay  men  make  from  their  substance  for  them."  The 
Caliph  Omar  (not  recognized  as  Caliph  by  the  Mohammedans  of  Per- 
sia) is  reported  to  have  said,  on  one  occasion,  that  "women  are  worth- 
less creatures  and  soil  men's  reputations." 

Secondly,  the  shameful  treatment  women  receive  all  through  Mo- 
hammedan lands,  the  worst  from  the  most  orthodox  followers  of  the 
Prophet. 

Thirdly,  the  Moslem  idea  of  Paradise.  Heaven,  according  to  their 
belief,  has  seven  divisions.  It  is  written:  "Who  created  seven  heavens 
in  stories."  The  seven  divisions  come  in  the  following  order:  "The 
garden  of  eternity,  the  abode  of  peace,  the  abode  of  rest,  the  garden  of 
Eden,  the  garden  of  resort,  the  garden  of  pleasure  (the  place  of  the  Most 
High),  and  the  garden  of  Paradise." 

All  believers  will  be  ushered  by  the  angels  into  these  gardens,  after 
they  are  dead.   Here  the  fruit  of  the  trees  and  the  shade  of  the  branches, 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


20? 


the  crystal-like  waters,  ever  flowing  from  the  great  rivers,  the  flesh,  of 
fowls,  will  be  in  abundance.  They  will  have  no  headache,  their  wit  will 
not  be  dimmed.  Around  them  shall  stand  eternal  youth  with  goblets 
and  ewers  and  cups  flowing  with  wine.  They  will  recline  on  gold-welft 
couches,  while  the  bright  and  large-eyed  maidens  who  are  like  hidden 
pearls  shall  walk  before  them.  These  are  what  are  called  the  damsels 
of  paradise,  the  seventy-two  bright-eyed  Houris  and  Paries,  the  beauty 
of  whom  is  beyond  human  conception.  And  these  will  make  the  other 
world  paradise  for  the  believers.  The  supposition  easily  follows  that  as 
God  has  created  these  Houris  to  be  the  wives  of  the  believers  in  Para- 
dise, therefore  it  must  be  that  their  earthly  wives  perish.  Such,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  teaching  of  the  Koran,  which  plainly  states  that : 

"The  men  who  resign  themselves  to  God,  and  the  women  who  re- 
sign themselves  to  God,  the  believing  men  and  the  believing  women, 
the  devout  men  and  the  devout  women,  the  men  of  truth  and  the  women 
of  truth,  the  patient  men  and  the  patient  women,  the  humble  men  and 
the  humble  women,  the  men  who  give  alms  and  the  women  who  give 
alms,  the  men  who  fast  and  the  women  who  fast,  the  chaste  men  and 
the  chaste  women,  the  men  and  the  women  who  oft  remembered  God, 
for  them  has  God  prepared  forgiveness  and  a  rich  recompense."  And 
again  it  is  written:  "They  and  their  wives  on  that  day  shall  rest  in 
shady  groves."  "Enter  ye  and  your  wives  into  paradise  delighted,"  etc. 
So  that  the  expectation  of  each  believer  is  to  have  his  earthly  wives  and 
in  addition  to  them  the  seventy-two  Houris  when  he  reaches  paradise. 
However,  there  is  a  stern  condition  for  the  admittance  of  any  woman 
into  heaven.  And  that  is  she  must  be  virtuous,  and  how  can  a  woman 
be  virtuous?  Only  by  perfect  obedience  to  her  husband.  For  it  is 
written :  "The  virtuous  women  are  obedient."  Some  women  who  are 
naturally  inclined  to  be  religious  try  to  bring  themselves  into  perfect 
subjection  and  to  render  the  fullest  obedience  to  whatever  commands 
their  husbands  may  give,  in  order  to  obtain  the  privilege  of  accompany- 
ing them  to  paradise,  while  others  seek  to  win  merit  by  long  pilgrimages 
to  some  sacred  shrine.  If  the  journey  has  to  be  made  on  a  lazy  donkey's 
back,  it  only  adds  luster  to  their  piety  and  renders  them  more  sure  of 
their  reward.  Upon  such  a  tottering  foundation  and  gloomy  faith  hangs 
the  rayless  hope  of  a  Moslem  woman. 

But  outside  of  these  few  there  are  numbers  who  make  their  whole 
life's  journey  with  scarcely  a  thought  or  hope  of  immortality,  being 
without  God  and  Christ.  Now  we  come  to  what  sickness  is  to  them. 
We  have  spoken  of  their  ignorance  and  awful  sins,  now  we  must  tell 


208 


PERSIA  EYJA1PERSIAN. 


their  sorrows  also,  for  they  are  the  natural  outcome  of  sin.  Christian 
women  for  which  sickness  means  nothing  but  tenderness,  sympathy 
and  love,  have  not  the  faintest  idea  what  sickness  means  to  their  sister 
where  there  is  no  Christ  and  there  is  a  vast  volume  of  facts  in  this  con- 
nection which  Christian  women  must  meet  and  modify,  even  though 
an  acquaintance  with  them  may  thrill  with  horror  their  enlightened  souls. 
The  woes  of  sickness  in  unchristianized  lands  are  beyond  the  conception 
of  those  of  other  countries.  Heathendom  throughout  the  East  believes 
that  sickness  is  the  result  of  demons  taking  possession  of  a  body.  There- 
fore they  beat  the  sick  person  with  terrible  clubs  or  roast  his  body  by 
a  fire  so  as  to  drive  out  the  demon  from  him.  Moslems,  on  the  other 
hand,  torture  them  by  neglect  of  proper  treatment  or  from  want  of  any 
treatment  at  all.  So  that  thousands  of  women  die  every  year' for  want 
of  a  little  medicine  and  treatment.  We  can  the  better  understand  the 
situation  of  a  sick  woman  in  Persia  or  in  any  other  Mohammedan 
country  by  noting  the  following  points  :  The  prevailing  view  of  Islam  in 
regard  to  the  doctrine  of  predestination  is  almost  criminal.  The  Koran 
teaches  it  in  its  most  radical  form,  which  leads  almost  inevitably  to 
fatalism. 

They  believe  that  whatever  comes,  including  sickness,  must  be  ac- 
cepted and  submitted  to  without  any  human  interference  as  predesti- 
nated by  God  from  eternity.  This  idea,  as  you  see,  precludes  the  use  of' 
remedies  in  sickness. 

Again,  the  woman's  position  in  domestic  and  social  circles  makes  it 
quite  impossible  to  see  or  prescribe  for  her.  For  those  who  get  sick  in 
the  harem  there  is  no  help.  They  must  suffer  and  die,  often  without 
even  the  knowledge  of  the  nearest  neighbor.  They  can  only  be  seen 
when  their  cold  bodies  are  taken  out  for  burial,  and  if  there  were  any 
opportunity  to  consult  a  physician  the  result  would  be  of  no  avail,  as 
the  native  doctors  have  not  the  slightest  idea  of  medical  science.  In 
most  cases  they  are  more  apt  to  cause  injury  and  death  than  help  by 
their  treatment.  These  physicians  rely  chiefly  on  charms,  spells,  amu- 
lets or  unholy  incantations.  And  as  the  people  are  extremely  ignorant 
they  have  implicit  faith  in  them,  and  would  not  spare  their  last  cent  to 
pay  for  them.  There  is  one  of  these  so-called  doctors  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  my  home  of  whom  I  know  well.  If  he  should  be  consulted 
about  a  woman  or  child  with  fever  and  chills,  he  would  say,  after  long 
deliberation,  that  a  chicken  must  be  brought  next  day  so  that  he  may 
write  a  charm  with  the  blood  of  the  chicken.   The  chicken  is  killed  at  his 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


20<l 


home  and  the  blood  used  while  the  meat  will  furnish  the  physician's  din- 
ner. The  sick  person  will  be  ordered  to  take  the  writing-  and  burn  it, 
putting  the  ashes  in  a  cup  of  water.  Then  to  drink  the  water,  and 
speedily  recover.  For  a  person  who  has  no  appetite  they  will  prescribe 
a  few  loaves  of  bread  under  his  pillow  at  bedtime.  Some  of  these  doc- 
tors believe  that  a  man's  occupation  sometimes  determines  what  medi- 
cine he  must  use  in  order  to  recover. 

In  some  cases  a  woman  may  in  some  way  gain  the  advantage  of 
these  prescriptions  for  their  fevers  and  slight  ailments,  but  in  the  more 
serious  forms  of  disease,  the  doctor  not  daring  to  touch  them,  even  to 
feel  their  pulse  or  look  at  their  tongue,  they  have  to  stand  the  pain  and 


A  MOHAMMEDAN  AND  ONE  OF  HIS  WIVES. 

suffering  to  the  end  without  amy  relief.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the 
hour  of  pain  and  peril  of  child  birth."  They  often  perish  under  the 
barbarous  hands  of  the  ignorant  midwives. 

Also  in  the  time  of  epidemics,  such  as  cholera,  smallpox,  and  other 
contagious  diseases,  which  often  bring  raging  destruction  into  the  coun- 
try. The  men  may  flee  to  the  mountains  and  get  away  from  their  city 
homes  and  danger,  but  the  women  and  children  are  left  to  endure  what- 
ever comes.  It  is  pitiful  indeed  to  see  them  fall  prostrate  and  die  some- 
times without  any  one  to  hand  them  even  so  much  as  a  cup  of  cold  water 
to  quench  their  thirst. 

We  have  already  written  on  the  mutual  relations  of  husbands  and 


210 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


wives.  It  will  not  be  amiss  to  add  a  word  more  in  this  connection.  If 
there  is  any  time  when  a  wife  needs  her  husband  to  stand  close  to  her 
it  is  when  she  is  suffering  and  in  pain.  And  if  there  is  any  time  when 
a  husband  ought  to  do  it  it  is  then ;  to  be  near  her  with  sympathy,  with 
tender  love,  with  comforting  words  and  undying  devotion.  But  instead 
of  this  the  moslem  husband  often  sends  heartless  messages  to  her  that 
she  has  been  in  bed  long  enough,  she  is  not  sick  at  all,  she  is  fooling 
people  and  wasting  time,  for  the  .poor  woman  adding  sorrow  of  heart 
and  physical  pain.  With  no  psalm  of  comfort  to  read,  no  skill  of  doctor 
to  alleviate  suffering,  no  trained  nurses,  no  hospital  or  infirmary,  no 
preacher  of  the  gospel  to  administer  the  consolations  of  religion,  and 
no  hope  for  eternity  when  their  sufferings  on  earth  are  ended.  The  pain 
and  dissolution  of  the  bodily  organism  is  dreadful  enough,  but  these 
are  intensified  an  hundredfold  by  the  terrible  agonies  of  a  "guilty  con- 
science forecasting  the  retributions  of  the  future."  Thus  the  sad  and 
solemn  hour  comes  when  the  shadows  of  the  king  of  terrors  begin  to  fall 
at  the  door  of  the  melancholy  room. 

The  feet  begin  to  grow  cold,  the  eyesight  dim,  the  weary  body  beats 
one  last  pulse,  and  the  soul  is  gone.  But,  alas!  not  to  rest,  for  there  is 
no  rest  to  them  who  die  without  Christ.  To  them,  death  is  but  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  misery,  as  much  greater  than  anything  in  this  world 
as  eternity  is  longer  than  time. 

Oh,  I  wish  I  could  ring  into  the  ear  of  every  Christian  woman  the 
awful  doom  of  my  unsaved  country-women.  I  wish  I  could  pierce  every 
heart  and  soul  with  the  darts  of  the  love  of  Christ,  so  as  to  arouse  a  new 
zeal  and  interest  in  sending  to  them  the  great  salvation  of  Christ. 

BURIAL  CEREMONIES. 

The  Mohammedans  have  a  prescribed  ritual  for  the  burial  of  the 
dead,  which  may  be  elaborated  or  cut  short,  according  as  the  dead  is 
rich  or  poor,  the  essentials  being  the  same  in  either  case.  The  unfortu- 
nate women  do  not  receive  nearly  so  much  attention  as  the  men  even 
in  death  and  burial. 

The  announcement  of  death  is  considered  to  bring  misfortune,  there- 
fore few  people  will  volunteer  to  take  the  tidings  around.  The  Moollah 
must  be  informed  first,  and  he  will  make  it  public  by  going  up  on  top 
of  the  mosque  and  singing  in  a  peculiar  way  certain  passages  from  the 
Koran.  This,  recognized  by  everybody  as  the  announcement  of  a  death, 
preparations  for  burial  begin  at  once,  for  they  do  not  keep  a  dead  body 
in  the  house  more  than  three  or  four  hours,  supposing  it  to  be  an  ill- 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


omen  to  the  family ;  and  it  must  be  they  often  bury  persons  while  onlv 
unconscious,  for  in  some  known  instances  when,  from  necessity,  they 
were  obliged  to  keep  the  body  a  little  longer  than  usual  they  have  found 
the  person  was  not  dead  at  all. 

It  is  customary  to  wash  the  body  under  a  cover  two  or  three  times. 
The  ears,  nose  and  mouth  are  then  filled  with  moistened  cotton  and  the 
body  shrouded  in  a  piece  of  cloth.  Coffins  are  little  used;  when  they 
are,  they  make  them  of  rough  wood  and  cover  them  with  black  calico. 
A  large  majority  of  the  dead  are  buried  without.  A  piece  of  shawl  is 
thrown  over  the  body,  from  the  house  to  the  grave,  when  it  is  taken  off. 
The  washing  and  preparatory  ceremonies  are  Hone  by  the  poor  people, 
who  expect  to  receive  in  return  the  clothing  of  the  dead.  When  all  is 
ready  for  the  burial  the  Moollah  is  sent  for  to  come  to  the  house.  Then 
the  body  will  be  taken  between  four  persons,  others  following,  to  relieve 
the  bearers  if  they  should  get  tired.  There  are  no  hearses  in  Persia, 
but  it  is  considered  meritorious  to  assist  in  these  ceremonies.  The  mool- 
lah goes  before  the  procession,  reading  the  Koran.  Women  are  not  al- 
lowed to  go  to  the  grave. 

The  grave  is  about  four  feet  deep  for  a  man,  while  for  a  woman  it 
must  be  two  or  three  feet  deeper.  So  there  is  no  equality  between 
man  and  women  even  in  the  grave.  The  body  must  be  laid  in  such  a 
way  that  the  face  can  look  toward  Mecca,  the  holy  shrine  of  the  Mos- 
lem, and  a  pair  of  crutches  are  placed  under  the  shoulders  to  help  them 
up  in  the  day  of  resurrection.  Then  the  earth  is  piled  in  and  a  stone 
put  over  it.  On  the  eve  of  the  same  day  a  large  fire  is  kindled  over  the 
head,  intended  to  keep  off  the  holder,  an  animal  which  comes  at  night 
to  dig  into  the  grave  and  eat  the  dead  body. 

In  Persia  there  are  no  marble  monuments  over  the  graves.  Some- 
times a  rude  stone  may  be  seen  with  the  name  of  the  person  written 
on  it,  and  some  passages  from  the  Koran,  or  sometimes  the  sign  of  a 
man's  trade,  as  a  sword  for  a  soldier,  etc.  Very  little  attention  is  paid 
to  the  burying-grounds.  Instead  of  flowers,  roses  and  trees,  there  is 
nothing  but  trash,  a  resort  for  donkeys  and  other  animals.  Perhaps 
one  reason  of  this  indifference  is  that  most  of  the  dead  are  buried  tem- 
porarily. As  soon  as  the  flesh  is  gone  from  the  bones  they  are  dug  up 
and  carried  to  the  sacred  shrines  at  Kubela'  and  Meshed,  so  as  to  rise 
in  company  with  the  great  Imanes,  holy  prophets  on  the  last  day. 

After  the  burial  the  Moollah  and  all  the  people  who  participated  in 
the  ceremony  go  back  to  the  house  of  mourning  to  offer  their  condolence 
and  good  wishes  to  the  bereaved  by  repeating  over  and  over  again  : 


:.'12 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


"It  is  the  will  of  Allah." 

"May  the  name  of  Allah  be  blessed !"  etc. 

Each  will  then  be  served  with  a  cup  of  bitter  coffee  and  a  kalian  or 
smoking  pipe,  while  another  member  of  the  party  brings  a  bottle  of  rose 
water  to  pour  over  the  head  of  each  one. 

The  number  of  mourning  days,  as  well  as  the  elaborateness  of  the 
ceremony  varies  greatly.  For  the  poorer  classes  of  women  there  will 
be  no  mourning  at  all.  Husbands  consider  it  unmanly  to  weep  over  a 
dead  wife  (as  another  one  can  easily  be  procured).  But  when  a  man 
is  dead  all  the  household  must  mourn  for  forty  or  fifty  days  and  some- 
times for  the  whole  year.  The  special  mourning  days  are  on  the  third 
day,  the  seventh  and  the  fortieth  after  burial.  On  these  days  all  the 
neighbors  will  gather  at  the  house.  Of  this  is  principally  the  duty  of 
the  women,  who  are  always  the  last  to  respond  to  joy  and  the  last  to 
leave  off  their  mourning.  The  mourning  consists  of  singing  the  songs  of 
death,  which  are  very  pathetic  and  hopeless  in  sentiment.  Professional 
mourners  are  secured  who  have  trained  themselves  for  such  occasions, 
and  the  house  will  be  packed  and  jammed  with  other  women,  mostly  of 
those  who  have  had  sorrows  of  their  own.  The  hired  singers  sit  in  the 
midst  of  them.  Some  article  of  clothing  or  something  which  belonged  to 
the  dead  is  handed  to  the  leaders,  who  take  it  into  their  hands  and  begin 
to  sing.  After  each  stanza  there  will  be  an  interval  of  a  few  minutes,  for 
them,  all  to  weep  and  sob  as  a  chorus.  This  goes  on  from  morning  until 
dinner  time.  If  the  hired  mourners  grow  weary,  they  throw  the  gar- 
ment of  the  dead  man  into  the  lap  of  some  mother  who  has  recently  lost 
a  son  and  she,  thus  reminded  of  her  own  loss,  takes  up  the  melancholy 
refrain  and  leads  while  the  others  get  a  little  rest. 

Dinner  is  served  to  them  all,  and  after  dinner  they  begin  again  and 
keep  it  up  until  night.  When  exhausted  they  depart.  Sometimes  wives 
and  mothers  tear  their  garments  and  scratch  their  faces,  pull  their  hair 
out  and  put  mud  and  dirt  over  their  bodies,  while  men  keep  their  shirts 
unbuttoned  at  the  breast  for  several  days. 

The  Moollah  is  paid  large  sums  to  read  the  Koran  every  Friday 
night  over  the  grave.  Sometimes  ten  or  fifteen  of  them  will  be  seen 
in  the  same  graveyard,  reading  aloud  and  this  will  be  continued  for 
several  months.   The  whole  family  dresses  in  black  for  a  year. 

Not  only  in  Persia,  but  in  all  countries  where  they  are  without 
Christianity,  to  the  women  especially,  death  is  a  terror,  and  the  grave 
a  pit  of  awful  darkness.  They  sorrow  as  those  who  have  no  hope.  It  is 
Christianity  alone  which  throws  a  soft  and  peaceful  light  over  the  grave. 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


313 


Where  Christ  is  known  instead  of  head  beating,  body  torturing,  and 
hopeless  lamentation,  songs  of  hope,  peace  and  love  are  sung  by  the 
bereaved  to  the  glory  of  Him  who  rules  life  and  death  forever. 

CHRISTIANITY  THE  ONLY  HOPE  FOR  WOMEN. 

The  Christian  apologists  need  no  longer  spend  their  valuable  time 
and  fertile  brains  in  vindicating  Christianity.  The  treatment  of  woman 
is  in  itself,  sufficient  proof  of  its  superiority  over  any  other  system.  The 
incontrovertible  facts  of  history,  and  the  strong  testimony  of  experience, 
show  clearly  that  one  of  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  so-called  moral 
and  philosophic  religions  of  the  world  is  the  slavery  and  degradation 
of  the  female  sex. 

We  have  already  seen  it  in  Mohammedanism — doubtless  one  of  the 
greatest  of  these  systems.  All  its  claims  of  morality  and  inspiration, 
its  revered  priesthood  and  its  cornerstone  of  belief  in  "Allah"  the  one  and 
only  God,  has  been  of  no  avail  to  women.  The  only  thing  womanhood 
has  received  from  Islam  is  moral  corruption,  mental  stupidity,  physical 
barbarity,  social  slavery  and  spiritual  deadness. 

Leaving  the  domains  of  Mohammed,  we  pass  to  India.  The  religion 
of  India  has  been  properly  called  "the  religion  of  despair."  Hindooism, 
in  its  early  stages,  smiled  upon  the  faces  of  woman  and  protected  and' 
adored  her  virtues.  But  this  golden  age  departed  centuries  before  our 
Christian  era. 

And  in  its  place  a  different  kind  of  system  has  been  transplanted 
which  drags  woman  into  the  lowest  stratum  of  society,  and  considers 
her  absolutely  incapable,  through  her  own  efforts,  of  rendering  accepr- 
able  service  to  the  Deity.  Even  individuality  is  denied  to  her.  Every 
hope  she  has  is  founded  upon  her  husband,  for  without  him  she  is  soul- 
less. The  law  says  that  "a  husband,  however  devoid  of  good  qualities, 
must  constantly  be  revered  as  a  god  by  a  virtuous  wife.  She  who  slights 
not  her  lord,  but  keeps  her  mind,  speech  and  body  devoted  to  him  at- 
tains her  heavenly  mansions."  No  matter  how  young  they  may  be  left 
widows,  they  are  thenceforth  regarded  as  dead  while  living.  We  hardly 
wonder  that  "Hindoo  women  never  smile." 

Buddhism,  with  its  great  pantheon  of  gods  and  goddesses,  can 
reach  no  higher  that  to  impress  upon  its  votaries  the  inferiority  and 
slavery  of  woman  as  a  consequence  of  her  having  been  the  cause  of  evil 
being  brought  upon  the  whole  human  race.  In  the  Oracles,  it  is  written : 
"All  was  subject  to  man  in  the  beginning.  The  wise  husband  raised  up 
a  bulwark  of  walls,  but  the  woman,  from  an  ambitious  desire  for  knowl- 


MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  HABITS  AND  SOCIAL  LIFE. 


215 


edge,  demolished  it.  Our  misery  did  not  come  from  heaven,  she  lost  the 
human  race." 

One  of  the  most  intelligent  of  the  Chinese  said  to  a  missionary  : 

"Why  do  you  make  Christians  of  our  women?" 

"To  save  their  souls,"  replied  the  missionary. 

"But  they  have  no  souls,  you  can't  make  Christians  out  of  them !" 

In  the  estimation  of  a  Chinaman  "ten  daughters  do  not,  in  any  case, 
equal  the  value  of  one  son."  Hence  there  is  no  hope  for  woman  in  the  old 
religions  of  China  and  Japan. 

Among  the  classic,  cultured  Greeks,  who  have  inherited  honest  fame 
as  the  most  intellectual  people  of  antiquity,  the  full  dignity  of  humanity 
was  not  accorded  to  woman.  In  the  fullest  sense,  mankind  consisted 
only  of  men.  Their  conception  of  woman  is-  personified  in  the  figure 
of  "Pandora,"  with  her  box  of  human  ills. 

Plato,  when  he  would  picture  society  as  a  complete  wreck,  says : 

"Slaves  are  disobedient  to  their  masters  and  wives  on  an  equality 
with  their  husbands."  Socrates  utters  the  pathetic  question :  "Is  there 
a  human  being  with  whom  you  talk  less  than  with  your  wife?"  And 
Aristotle  characterizes  them  as  an  inferior  order.  These  are  the  senti- 
ments of  the  great  leaders  of  religious  thoughts,  of  the  doctrines  in- 
culcated in  great  systems  which  reflect  the  spirit  of  purely  human  organi- 
zations. From  none  of  these  can  there  ever  be  a  shadow  of  comfort 
for  woman.  Not  one  of  them  has  given  her  the  place  of  equality,  as  half 
of  the  unit  of  mankind.  And  not  one  of  them  has  recognized  fully  her 
superior  nature,  her  immortal  soul.  Crush  the  soul  of  a  woman,  rob  her 
of  her  divine  enthusiasm,  destroy  her  yearnings  to  be  a  spiritual  solace 
and  she  will  wither  soon,  like  a  stricken  tree,  and  sink  sullenly  into  ob- 
scurity. Paganism,  in  ignoring  the  grandest  and  truest  in  a  woman,  and 
in  crushing  her  soul,  has  extinguished  her  very  life,  and  shed  darkness 
on  all  who  surround  her.  For  without  the  amenities  of  the  soul  there  can 
never  be  a  lofty  friendship  and  a  real  society. 

Where  Christianity  arises,  with  its  crimson  banner  floating  through 
the  skies,  with  its  infallible  claims  of  inspiration,  its  holy  and  high  priest- 
hood of  all  the  saints,  and  its  high  moral  and  ethical  teachings,  it  brings 
a  healing  balm  for  all  the  woes  and  ills  of  humanity,  and  a  message  of 
hope  and  salvation  to  all  the  nations,  races  and  sexes  from  the  divine 
lips  of  the  crucified  Jesus. 

Of  course,  in  the  term  Christianity,  we  do  not  include  those  super- 
stitious and  paganized  forms  of  it  which  also  degrade  womanhood. 

When  we  speak  of  Christianity,  we  mean  the  pure,  sincere  and 


316 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Christ-like  system  of  doctrines  and  precepts  taught  in  the  pages  of  the 
gospel.  Here  only  can  the  women  hear  the  silvery  words  and  golden 
sentences  coming  out  from  the  lips  of  the  divine  man  Jesus,  whose 
teachings  and  thoughts  have  ever  been  a  benediction  to  women,  puri- 
fying their  thoughts,  molding  their  character,  elevating  their  honor  and 
saving  their  souls.  In  His  teachings  He  ignored  the  distinctions  of  rank, 
race,  sex,  and  simply  taught,  ''Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit,"  "Blessed 
are  they  that  mourn,"  "Blessed  are  the  meek,"  "Blessed  are  the  merci- 
ful." 

Not  only  in  what  He  taught  did  He  raise  the  highest  standard  of 
equality  and  mutual  dependencies  of  the  sexes,  but  in  His  deeds  and 
dealings  while  on  earth'.  One  of  His  most  deeply  spiritual  conversations, 
recorded  in  the  4th  chapter  of  John,  is  the  one  with  the  Samaritan  woman 
at  Jacob's  well.  He  was  so  intent  upon  saving  her  precious  soul  that 
neither  hunger,  nor  the  blazing  heat  of  the  summer  sun  could  deter 
Him.  Even  His  disciples,  still  full  of  the  spirit  of  Judaism,  "marveled" 
because  He  spake  to  the  woman.  On  another  occasion,  when  a  poor 
woman  was  brought  to  Him  by  a  mob  of  Pharisees  that  He  might  con- 
demn her  for  adultery.  He,  who  had  come  to  save  the  lost,  simply  said : 
"He  that  is  without  sin,  let  him  cast  the  first  stone  at  her."  He  sym- 
pathized with  women  always.  He  took  an  interest  in  their  domestic 
and  social  life ;  in  sorrow  and  bereavement  He  was  first  to  extend  His 
hand  of  mercy.  He  healed  them  when  sick,  raised  their  dear  ones  from 
the  dead,  and  when  they  were  wrong,  He  rebuked  them  gently.  Natu- 
rally, they  loved  Him  reverently,  and  followed  Him  whenever  they  could, 
and  their  tender  ministries  even  unto  death  and  the  resurrection  morn. 
And  when  He  ascended  up  to  heaven  He  commanded  His  disciples  to 
take  His  blessed  Gospel  and  preach  it  unto  all  the  world,  without  dis- 
tinction of  sex  or  race.  So  that  wherever  it  has  gone,  eternal  blessings 
have  followed  its  preaching.  To-day  Christianity  extends  its  message 
to  all  women  of  the  world  as  well  as  to  men,  a  message  of  hope  both 
for  this  life  and  the  life  to  come,  a  message  of  love  and  mercy  from 
Him  who  died  upon  the  cross  to  save  them  from  their  sins.  And  as  the 
result  of  the  preaching  of  this  Gospel,  Christianity  can  boast  of  its 
hosts  of  elevated  and  redeemed  women,  whose  moral,  intellectual,  and 
spiritual  beauty  is  more  radiant  than  the  noonday  sun. 

Thanks  be  to  God,  the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  for  Christ- 
ian  womanhood, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


217 


Woman,  why  weepest  thou? 
No  sound!  but  women  veiled  and  speechless  throng 
And  look  their  wordless  woe  with  haunting  eyes ; 
Far  down,  unseen,  unsearched,  as  one  who  lies 
In  unsearched  hidden  chasms,  they  die.    How  strong 
The  voice  that  cries  along  th'  abyss  of  heathen  wrong : 
Woman,  why  weepest  thou? 

Woman,  why  weepest  thou? 
Thy  help  is  near!  Thy  Christ  has  heard  the  sound 
Of  worldwide  tears !    His  herald's  swift  proclaim 
Surcease  of  weeping  through  His  mighty  name. 
Woman,  He  died,  and  on  the  cross  was  bound 
To  lift  thee  by  unfathomed  love  from  depths  profound ! 
Woman,  why  weepest  thou? 


PART  III. 

RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 

Nestorius   and   Nestorianism,  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism 
Kurdish  People,  Babi  and  Babism,  Devil  Worshipers,  etc. 

NESTORIUS. 

Nestorius  was  born  near  the  close  of  the  fourth  century  at  Ger- 
ma-ni-cia,  and  was  a  disciple  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  He  became  a 
Presbyter  of  Antioch  and  was  made  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  428. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  fluency  of  speech  and  his  zeal  against  pre- 
vailing heresies,  especially  those  of  the  Appollinarians.  In  his  opposition 
to  their  doctrine,  Nestorius  himself  erred  from  the  truth  he  was  striving 
to  defend.  He  denied  the  communication  of  idioms,  i.  e.,  the  doctrine 
that  the  attributes  of  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  are  communicated  to 
the  human,  and  vice  versa.  His  doctrine  was :  Christ  is  a  true  man 
born  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  This  man  God  chose  as  his  temple,  so  that 
God  was  in  Christ,  but  God,  or  the  divine  nature  did  not,  could  not 
suffer  and  die.  He  refused  to  call  Mary  the  mother  of  God,  saying: 
"Has  God  a  mother?  The  creature  has  not  borne  Him  who  is  uncreate." 
By  denying  the  communication  of  idioms  he  virtually  predicated  two 
persons,  and  by  denying  the  death  of  the  Son  of  God  he  nullified  the 


218 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


work  of  redemption  of  the  world  by  Christ,  since  it  required  the  blood 
of  Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  to  redeem  a  fallen  world.  He  was  supported 
by  the  eastern  bishops,  etc. 

He  was  a  learned  man  in  literature  and  an  orator  of  power.  His 
opinions  were  vigorously  combatted  by  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  who, 
by  the  advice  of  Pope  Celestine,  called  a  council  to  Alexandria  in  430 
to  determine  the  controversy.  By  this  council  Nestorius  was  judged 
guilty  of  blasphemy  and  was  anathematized,  and  Nestorius  in  turn 
charged  Cyril  with  confounding  the  two  natures  of  Christ  and  anathe- 
matized him. 

Cyril  induced  the  emperor,  Theodosius  II,  to  call  a  council  at 
Ephesus  in  431,  at  which  Cyril  presided.  As  the  bishop  of  Antioch 
and  others  from  the  east  had  not  come  as  yet,  Nestorius  refused  to  ap- 
pear before  the  council,  as  he  knew  those  who  were  absent  were  friendly 
and  in  harmony  with  him  and  his  views.  But  the  council  again  decided 
against  him.  Immediately  after  being  deprived  of  his  office,  Nestorius 
withdrew  into  private  life  within  the  monastery  of  Euprepius,  Antioch, 
until  438,  when  the  emperor  ordered  his  banishment  to  Petra,  Arabia. 
Later,  he  was  sent  to  the  oasis  of  Lybia,  in  upper  Egypt.  He  was  still 
living  when  Socrates  wrote  his  church  history.  The  time  and  place,  and 
circumstances  of  his  death  are  unknown. 

INTRODUCTION  OF  CHRISTIANITY  AMONG  THE  SYRIANS 
OR  NESTORIANS. 

The  origin  of  the  Peshuto  Bible  (a  very  early  Syrian  version)  is 
explained  by  the  following  tradition :  During  the  life  of  Jesus  on  earth, 
Abgar,  king  of  Edessa,  sent  to  Jesus  a  letter  inviting  him  to  his  city,  to 
escape  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews,  to  heal  him  and  to  bless  his  people. 
Jesus  replied  that  he  must  remain  in  Judea,  to  finish  his  work,  but  would 
after  His  death  and  ascension  send  a  disciple,  who  should  heal  and  teach 
him.  This  disciple,  being  in  after  years  sent  and  kindly  received.  The 
Gospel  of  Matthew  was  written  in  Syriac,  and  in  the  course  of  the  sec- 
ond century  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament,  save  the  Second  and  Third 
Epistles  of  John,  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  Epistles  of  Jude  and 
James,  and  the  Revelations  of  Jesus  Christ  to  John.  These  having  not 
yet  been  accepted  in  Canaan  as  canonical  parts  of  the  New  Testament, 
they  were  translated  into  what  is  known  as  the  Peshito  version  (it  is 
called  Peshito  on  account  of  its  simplicity).  This  version,  on  account 
of  its  age,  is  often  cited  as  high  authority  upon  disputed  points. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


210 


The  Syrian  Church  was  founded  in  the  time  when  the  disciples  were 
scattered  by  reason  of  the  persecutions^  A.  D.  44-87  (See  Acts  11-19), 
and  by  the  exertions  of  the  Apostle  Paul  (Gal.  1-21),  grew  to  be  one  of 
the  most  flourishing,  and  is  often  mentioned  (Acts  13:1,  15:23,  35:41). 

The  Syrian  Christians  were  called  Martumans  from  the  name  Mar- 
tuma,  a  missionary  from  Jerusalem,  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  Dis- 
ciples of  Christ  also  "Nazarus,"  i.  e.,  Nazarene,  which  name  of  contempt 
is  in  use  today.  Later  they  were  called  Nestorians  from  Nestorius,  a 
Syrian  Bishop  of  Constantinople.  (See  Nestorius.)  They  were  a  well 
organized  church,  very  methodical  in  matters  of  government.  Their 
membership  was  grouped  by  sevens,  forty-nine  families  under  one  min- 
ister, seven  ministers  under  one  bishop,  and  seven  bishops  under  one 
Metropolitan,  all  the  Metropolitans  under  one  Patriarch.  In  each  year 
one  general  synod  was  held.  The  character  of  this  church  was  shown 
by  their  building  seminaries  and  colleges.  Some  of  the  most  important 
of  these  were  at  Nesibia,  Edessa,  Uhai  (this  was  called  the  queen  of  the 
schools),  at  Antioch  and  Koochanies.  These  schools,  while  they  flour- 
ished, were  the  secret  of  the  church's  strength.  The  instructors  were 
the  most  learned  men  of  their  age.  Airvaz  and  St.  Basil  of  Nesibia  and 
Urhai  were  among  the  most  learned  teachers.  The  Assyrian,  Arabic  and 
Greek  languages  were  taught  classically.  Medicine,  astronomy  and 
mathematics,  including  geometry,  were  taught.  Special  attention  was 
given  to  the  study  of  theology.  There  were  as  many  as  2,000  monks  and 
students  in  some  of  these  institutions.  There  doctors  of  medicine  were 
given  high  positions  under  the  Arabian  and  Persian  governments.  Lit- 
erature in  the  Eastern  languages  was  rich.  From  these  schools  came 
great  church  fathers,  who  defended  the  church  from  the  heretics  of  the 
age.  The  students  were  prepared  for  study  by  some  saintly  hermit  in  his 
cave,  they  having  taken  a  monastrial  vow  similar  to  that  of  a  Nazarene. 
Next  cartie  five  years'  study  in  the  schools,  and  that  they  studied  well, 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  these  men  wrote  more  than  600  commentaries 
on  the  Scriptures.  Before  leaving  school  each  student  was  expected  to 
make  a  complete  copy  of  the  New  Te'stament,  to  be  left  as  his  gift  to  the 
common  library.  There  are  to-day  in  Europe  many  manuscripts  written 
by  these  scholars,  that  are  from  300  to  1,200  years  old.  The  New 
Testament  was  translated  into  many  dialects  by  the  scholars.  These . 
manuscripts  are  skillfully  executed  and  show  the  beauty  and  antiquity  of 
this  church.  Only  a  few  of  these  ancient  manuscripts  are  now  to  be  found 
in  Persia  and  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  but  there  are  many  of  them 
scattered  among  the  libraries  of  Europe.    In  these  days  of  printing  and 


220 


221 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


typewriting,  people  have  little  idea  how  laborious  and  beautiful  this 
work  was.  The  earnestness  of  this  church  was  also  shown  by  the  send- 
ing of  missionaries.  Their  great  work  in  missions  was  from  the  sixth 
to  the  thirteenth  centuries.  They  penetrated  all  Asia  and  Europe,  as  is 
shown  by  ancient  discovery.  In  China  a  pillar  has  been  found  bearing 
inscriptions  in  Chinese  and  in  Syriac :  This  was  written  during  the  reign 
of  Si  Coom,  Emperor  of  China,  six  hundred  years  after  Christ. 

Several  years  ago  a  Japanese  Christian  was  asked:  "To  what  de- 
nomination do  you  belong?"  and  answered:  "I  am  a  Nestorian,"  and 
showed  some  Nestorian  books  handed  down  to  him  by  his  forefathers. 
The  instructions  given  to  missionaries  are  interesting.  One  of  the 
Bishops,  Mar  Ephraim  (Saints)  said:  "Change  country  for  country; 
but  from  your  Master  do  not  change.  To  every  land  bring  the  water 
of  life.  In  every  home  to  which  you  come  think  that  you  shall  find  at 
least  one  jewel  of  great  price  for  your  Master's  treasury  and  look  care- 
fully about,  and  having  found  it,  spare  no  pains  to  bring  that  soul  to  the 
Kingdom."  The  great  aim  of  this  school  was  to  educate  the  monks 
and  to  become  missionaries  and  spread  the  Gospel.  These  schools 
were  fountains  from  which  flowed  living  waters  for  a  thirsty  land.  There 
was  no  other  nation,  in  their  age,  that  possessed  such  a  spirit  of  Chris- 
tain  vitality.  Zeal  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel  was  burning  in  their 
hearts  as  a  divine  flame.  There  was  a  class  of  Bishops  appointed  by  their 
leaders  to  awaken  and  keep  alive  this  missionary  spirit.  "The  dying  love 
of  Christ  for  sinners,"  was  the  text  from  which  they  preached.  Also 
His  last  commission  to  His  disciples,  Matt.  28:19-20.  These  Bishops 
preached  with  an  inspiration  from  God  and  inflamed  many  hearts  until 
they  were  ready  to  sacrifice  their  lives  for  Christ.  These  missionaries 
wore  sandals  on  their  feet,  carried  a  staff  of  peace  in  their  hands,  and  a 
knapsack  on  their  shoulders,  containing  bread  and  manuscripts  of 
sacred  writings.  Thus  equipped,  they  journeyed  into  heathen  lands, 
following  the  command  of  their  Nazarene  teacher.  The  church  was 
very  poor  and  had  no  board  of  foreign  missions  to  guarantee  even  a 
small  income.  The  missionaries  went  forth  trusting  in  their  Heavenly 
Father.  If  He  took  care  of  the  birds  in  the  air,  how  much  more  would 
He  care  for  the  heralds  of  His  Gospel.  The  week  before  departure  was 
spent  in  fasting  and  prayer  and  consecration.  On  the  last  day  they 
partook  of  communion  from  the  hand  of  their  leader,  and  solemn  ad- 
vice was  given  by  the  Bishop.  In  parting  the  Bishop  kissed  the  mission- 
aries' brow  and  the  latter  kissed  the  Bishop's  hand  and  the  Bishop 
would  say :   "The  Lord  God  of  the  prophets  and  apostles  be  with  you ; 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


223 


the  love  of  Christ  defend  you;  the  Holy  Spirit  sanctify  and  continually 
comfort  you."  Some  of  the  missionaries  went  to  distant  lands  requiring 
eight  or  twelve  months  to  make  the  journey  on  foot.  They  worked 
in  China,  India,  Tartary,  Persia,  Beloochistan,  Afghanistan,  and  North- 
ern Africa.  Success  followed  their  work.  In  Southern  India  is  a 
small  church  planted  at  that  time.  These  followers  are  now  called 
the  St.  Thomas  Christians.  They  always  come  to  Mar  Shumon  to  be 
ordained  as  Bishops  or  metropolitans  and  go  back  with  authority  to 
ordain  the  lower  officers.  When  I  was  with  the  patriarch,  in  1895,  there 
were  two  or  more  preparing  themselves  with  that  view  of  being  or- 
dained or  sent  among  these  St.  Thomas  Christians.  A  special  epistle 
had  been  received,  written  and  signed  by  seven  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  prominent  men  of  those  Christians  in  India,  request- 
ing Mar  Shumon  to  send  them  a  metropolitan  (as  one  who 
had  been  ordained  a  few  years  before,  had  died),  a  Bishop,  two 
priests,  and  an  interpreter,  vouching  for  the  support  of  these  parties  and 
promising  help  to  those  who  are  living  in  Persia  and  Turkey.  But  Mar 
Shumon  could  not  comply  with  their  request  as  he  had  no  person  who 
could  fill  those  positions.  But  the  spirit  was  stirring  as  the  sun  of 
Heaven  began  to  languish  in  the  tenth  century  and  by  the  fourteenth 
century  had  entirely  died,  and  at  present  utter  ignorance  and  darkness, 
and  oppression  from  Mohammedanism  and  the  Catholics  prevails.  At 
that  time,  some  of  the  church's  true  sons,  in  lamentation,  said :  "How 
are  the  mighty  fallen,  and  the  weapons  of  war  perished !"  Hundreds 
of  their  missionaries  had  become  martyrs  of  Christ  in  a  heroic  spirit. 
They  would  enter  fire,  singing  praises  to  God,  believing  their  shed 
blood  would  be  the  seed  of  the  church. 

In  the  year  33  after  the  death  of  Christ,  Mar  Tuma  St.  Thomas 
became  Patriarch  of  the  Syrian  church.  He  held  the  office  for  five  years, 
and  in  this  time  he  prepared  St.  Maree  and  also  St.  Addi,  two  of  the 
seventy  and  St.  Thomas,  one  of  the  twelve  sent  out  by  our  Lord  Jesus. 
In  38  St.  Thomas  went  to  Hindoostan  and  St.  Maree  took  his  place.  St. 
Maree's  residence  was  in  Ktispon  on  the  Tigris,  which  was  for  a  long 
time  the  capital  of  the  Sassanite  dynasty.  St.  Maree  expired  in  A.  D. 
82.  After  his  death  his  disciples  went  to  Jerusalem  and  chose  Abriz 
as  their  patriarch.  He  served  from  A.  D.  90  to  107.  After  Abriz  from 
A.  D.  130  to  132,  Abraham,  a  relative  of  the  apostle  James,  became 
their  patriarch.  His  successor  was  James,  a  just  man,  and  a  relative  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  mother  of  our  Lord.  Akhad  Abowoy  became  their 
patriarch  from  205  to  220.    During  this  period  there  was  a  severe  war 


224 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


between  the  Romans  and  Persians.  The  latter  then  ruled  over  Persia, 
Assyria  and  Babylonia.  The  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  a  subject  of  Rome, 
advised  the  Assyrians  who  were  under  the  Parthians,  to  elect  a  Patriarch 
who  was  a  subject  of  the  Parthians.  The  Parthians  ruled  over  Persia 
from  220  B.  C.  until  226  A.  D.  In  all  the  changes  of  government  the 
Assyrians  managed  to  keep  in  office  a  succession  of  patriarchs  even  to 
the  present  time.  In  the  early  church  down  to  the  year  1405  the  Patri- 
arch was  chosen  by  a  general  vote  of  the  church.  Any  metropolitan 
bishop  might  be  chosen.  The  office  held  for  life.  In  the  year  1405,  by 
reason  of  great  persecutions,  the  Patriarch,  Mar  Shumon,  alone  was 
left  of  all  the  metropolitans.  He  therefore  appointed  one  of  his  own 
household  to  succeed  him,  and  thenceforward  down  to  the  present 
day  each  Patriarch  chooses  his  successors.  The  choice  lies  among  blood 
kindred.  As  a  general  thing  the  elder  brother  is  chosen,  for  there  is  a 
rule  that  the  Patriarch  must  be  an  unmarried  man.  Yet  in  early  days 
of  persecution  it  was  sometimes  necessary  to  relax  this  rule  owing  to 
the  impossibility  of  finding  in  the  church  a  man  of  sufficient  ability 
who  had  never  been  married.  The  patriarchial  city  is  now  Koorchanis. 
The  seat  of  the  Patriarch  has  been  changed  from  Ktispon  to  Bagdad, 
Babel,  Ninevah,  Mosoel  and  Elkosh,  the  town  of  the  Prophet  Nahum, 
and  the  chief  city  of  learning.  Finally  in  1778  it  changed  to  Koochanis. 
The  present  Patriarch,  Mar  Shumon,  took  office  in  1865.  He  is  the 
last  of  108  Patriarchs  of  the  Syrian  or  Eastern  Church,  whose  rule  once 
extended  over  all  Arabia,  Hindoostan,  China  and  the  mountains  of  the 
Caucasus.  As  a  nation  they  had,  and  still  have,  no  part  or  voice  in 
government,  except  in  paying  heavy  taxes.  During  the  summer,  their 
landlords  forced  them  to  work  in  the  rice  and  wheat  fields  without 
pay.  Nestorians  did  not  dare  to  use  the  same  cloth  for  garments  that 
Mohammedans  used.  Through  fear  of  the  Mohammedans,  Christians 
used  even  to  wear  their  new  clothes  under  the  old.  People  were  robbed 
at  their  own  doorstep  and  would  not  dare  to  resist,  but  were  glad  to 
escape  with  their  lives.  A  Moslem  would  say  to  a  Christian :  "See  here, 
carpenter  Samuel,  just  let  me  try  your  shoes  on  and  see  if  they  fit  me," 
(if  they  were  new,  of  course),  or  he  would  ask  for  his  hat  or  any  other 
garment  which  he  (the  Mohammedan)  envied,  and  walk  away  with  it, 
and  the  victim  would  meekly  watch  him  but  dared  not  offer  resistance. 

Revive,  O  Lord,  in  the  midst  of  the  years :  revive  Thy  work  O 
Lord.  Gather  together  Thy  dispersed  sheep,  scattered  throughout  the 
world,  into  one  fold  under  one  Shepherd ;  and  grant  that  through  the 
operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit  the  labors  of  the  Syrian  Church  may  be 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


made  effectual  for  the  conversion  of  Asia.  Send  forth  laborers  into 
Thy  harvest,  and  defend  them  by  Thy  mighty  power,  through  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord — Amen. 

THEIR  COURTSHIP  AND  MARRIAGE. 

Among  all  the  nationalities  that  live  in  Persia,  the  marrying  of  their 
children  is  considered  a  sacred  duty,  and  the  marriage  of  a  son  is  looked 
upon  as  the  happiest  event  in  his  parents'  lives  and  an  occasion  of  the 
greatest  rejoicing;  for  an  unmarried  man  is  considered  the  most  wretched 
and  miserable  of  beings.  He  is  compared  to  a  bird  sitting  on  top  of  a 
bush  and  not  knowing  where  to  fly. 

In  some  instances,  children  are  bethrothed  in  their  infancy  by  their 
parents.  We  have  heard  of  a  case  where  two  men  were  the  best  of 
friends  and  decided  between  themselves  that  if  one  of  them  should  have 
a  son  and  the  other  a  daughter,  they  would  marry  them  in  order  to 
perfect  and  perpetuate  their  friendship.  In  due  time  the  children  were 
born,  one  a  boy  and  the  other  a  girl,  their  two  cradles  were  brought 
together  and  the  marriage  ceremony  performed. 

In  cases  where  children  are  engaged  to  each  other  when  they  were 
only  a  few  years  old,  by  their  parents,  who  are  good  friends  and  wish 
therefore  to  perpetuate  their  friendship,  the  marriages  are  often  quite 
happy.  The  two  little  ones,  as  they  are  growing  up,  know  that  they 
are  intended  for  each  other  and  do  not  allow  themselves  to  think  of  any 
one  else,  but  grow  to  love  each  other  from  a  sense  of  duty  and  filial 
obedience. 

The  son  will  wish  to  see  the  girl  before  his  parents  make  any  ar- 
rangements for  the  engagement.  So  he  will  select  his  companion  and 
they  will  go  to  her  village,  presumably  on  some  business  errand.  He 
will  get  a  chance  to  see  the  girl,  and  not  only  see  her,  but  coming  thus 
unexpectedly,  he  will  find  her  in  her  every  day  clothes,  looking  just  as  he 
may  expect  to  find  her  look  in  his  own  home  should  he  decide  to 
marry  her.  He  will  pretend  to  be  very  thirsty  and  ask  her  for  water 
for  them  to  drink.  In  this  way  he  will  get  a  good  look  at  her,  but 
only  for  a  moment,  and  under  no  circumstances  is  he  allowed  to  speak  to 
her  of  love,  or  marriage,  or  to  enter  into  an  engagement  with  her  or 
kiss  her,  as  young  people  do  in  this  country.  To  kiss  a  girl  in  Persia 
means  that  you  rob  her  of  her  beauty,  and  is  considered  a  great  and  un- 
pardonable crime. 

The  boy's  father  will  take  with  him  an  influential  and  highly  re- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


237 


spected  man  of  the  place  to  be  his  spokesman  in  order  to  gain  an  in- 
fluence and  insure  the  success  of  their  great  undertaking.  They  will 
sit  and  talk  together  for  some  time  on  general  topics,  until  finally  the 
friend  whom  the  boy's  father  has  taken  as  his  representative,  will  come 
to  the  object  of  their  visit  by  saying  to  the  girl's  parents :  "You  do  not 
ask  why  we  have  come  here."  When  they  will  ask  why,  he  will  then  tell 
them  the  object  of  their  visit  and  they  will  discuss  it  together.  Finally 
the  representative  friend  will  ask  the  girl's  father  if  he  is  willing  to  unite 
his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  son  of  this  friend  of  his.  If  the  parents 
are  willing  for  the  union  the  father  will  say:  "Her  mother  knows." 
Then  the  friend  will  ask  the  mother  the  same  question,  to  which  she 
will  reply :  "I  have  nothing  to  say  for  my  part.  I  can  present  her  to 
you  as  a  pair  of  shoes  or  a  red  apple.  You  had  better  ask  her  father." 
The  same  question  will  then  be  repeated  to  the  father,  who  will  say:  "I 
can  give  her  to  you  as  a  hand-maid."  These  answers  mean  that  the 
father  and  mother  are  willing  for  the  marriage  to  take  place.  So  the 
representative  rises  at  once,  and  in  a  most  graceful  manner,  kisses  the 
hands  of  the  girl's  parents  and  sometimes  those  of  her  other  relatives 
present  also. 

The  boy's  father  follows  his  example,  after  which  they  will  thank 
them  heartily  for  their  courtesy  and  for  their  not  having  disappointed 
their  hopes  and  plans.  The  ring  is  produced,  however,  and  handed  to 
some  old  lady,  a  trusted  friend  of  the  girl's  family,  who  takes  it  to  the 
girl,  and,  adding  as  she  hands  it  to  her,  "You  may  choose  now  which 
ever  one  you  wish  and  put  it  on  your  finger  and  then  give  it  back  to  me." 
Then  the  old  lady  will  come  back,  and  say:  "May  her  face  be  white! 
When  I  presented  the  ring  to  her  she  did  not  say  a  word,  but  boldly  took 
the  ring,  put  it  on  her  finger,  and  returned  it  to  me." 

After  her  bethrothal,  the  girl  will  be  very  busy  sewing,  preparing 
articles  that  are  to  be  taken  with  her  to  the  house  of  her  future  father- 
in-law.  These  articles  are  all  made  by  hand  and  consist  of  clothing,  orna- 
ments for  the  house,  purses  and  caps  and  may  cost  from  ten  to  thirty 
dollars,  according  to  their  circumstances. 

During  the  intervening  weeks,  months,  or  even  years,  between  the 
bethrothal  and  marriage  ceremony  the  young  man  will  often  try  to  see 
and  talk  with  her  parents.  They  will  allow  him  to  see  her  only  once 
during  that  time,  then  only  for  a  few  minutes,  and  that  in  the  presence 
of  her  mother  or  some  other  good  woman. 

Every  young  man,  however,  is  allowed  to  send  trifles  as  presents  to 


228 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN, 


his  affianced  bride  at  different  times  during  the  period  of  their  engage- 
ment, as  expressions  of  his  affection  for  her. 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  THE  WEDDING. 

A  couple  of  days  before  the  wedding,  the  father  of  the  bridegroom 
will  send  out  a  number  of  young  men  as  heralds  to  his  friends  and  rela- 
tives in  all  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages  to  invite  them  to  the 
wedding.  These  heralds  put  on  their  holiday  costumes  and  take  each 
one  a  long,  thick  staff  in  his  hand  and  set  out  on  their  errand.  When 
they  enter  a  house  they  greet  the  household  by  saying,  "Shla-mal-okoon" 
or  "Sal-am-alkum."  (Peace  be  unto  you).  They  will  reply  "Bshana," 
(welcome).    They  then  announce  that  they  have  been  sent  to  them  by 

Mr.  and  Mrs.   ,  because  they  are  going  to  have  their  son  "Ba- 

bakhan,"  married.  They  wish  us  to  tell  you  that  this  occasion  of  gladness 
is  not  theirs  but  yours.  Their  friends  and  relatives,  therefore,  they  in- 
vite you  to  attend  the  wedding.  They  will  be  delighted  to  see  you  pres- 
ent, even  with  your  whole  family.   The  wedding  will  begin  on   day 

next,  and  will  continue  four  days.  They  will  reply :  "We  are  very  glad 
of  it;  may  it  be  a  happy  occasion  from  the  very  beginning  to  its  close." 

The  parents  of  the  bride-to-be  will  also  send  out  heralds  to  invite 
their  friends  and  relatives. 

Shortly  before  sunset  of  the  first  day  of  the  wedding,  two  heralds, 
a  young  woman  and  a  young  man,  are  sent  out  to  each  home  in  the 
village  to  announce  the  wedding  is  beginning.  They  are  followed  by  the 
musicians,  playing  in  the  streets  and  crowds  of  children  around  them. 

In  the  evening  all  the  relatives,  friends  and  neighbors  of  the  bride's 
parents  assemble  at  her  home.  She  is  allowed  to  invite  all  her  girl 
friends  also  and  a  free  supper  is  served  to  all  of  them  after  which  all 
await  the  coming  of  the  party  from  the  groom's  house.  The  young 
people  and  the  heralds  carry  with  them  lighted  lamps,  tallow  candles 
and  torches,  made  by  tying  rags  dipped  in  castor  oil  to  wooden  handles 
or  sticks.  In  this  way  a  gay  procession  is  formed  and,  accompanied 
by  the  musicians,  goes  to  the  bride's  home.  The  bride's  relatives  make  a 
paste  of  the  pounded  leaves  of  the  henna.  This,  put  upon  the  hands,  make 
them  quite  red.  Bride's  hands  to  make  them  red,  as  an  emblem  of  joy. 
In  Persia  red  is  considered  the  emblem  of  victory  and  joy;  white,  of 
purity  and  black  of  sorrow.  After  the  henna  has  been  put  upon  the 
bride's  hands,  the  gay  party  returns  to  the  groom's  home,  where  his 
best  man  puts  henna  upon  the  groom's  hands,  but  more  presents  are 
required  of  him  unless  the  musician  should  ask  a  fee. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


220 


On  the  morning  of  the  wedding,  the  musicians  go  upon  the  roof 
of  the  groom's  house  and  play  for  about  one-half  hour,  in  order  to 
announce  to  the  village  that  breakfast  is  about  ready.  After  breakfast 
is  served,  preparations  are  made  for  the  bringing  out  of  the  bride.  The 
procession  from  the  groom's  home  sets  out  in  great  pomp,  led  by  the 
musicians,  playing  as  loud  as  they  can  and  heralds  shouting  hurrah  every 
now  and  then  as  they  go  to  the  bride's  home.  Arriving  there  quite  a 
company  of  the  relatives,  friends  and  neighbors  of  the  bride's  parents  are 
found  already  assembled  and  a  lunch  is  now  served,  after  which  the 
committee  holds  a  meeting  to  make  all  further  necessary  arrangements. 
At  the  same  time,  all  the  intimate  friends  of  the  bride  are  present  and 


NESTORIAN  CHRISTIAN  LADY. 

the  lady  who  taught  her  to  sew,  dresses  her  in  a  regular  bridal  costume, 
placing  a  wooden  ring  about  an  inch  thick  and  five  inches  high,  upon 
her  head.  Over  this  a  fancy  veil  is  placed,  entirely  covering  her  face 
and  reaching  the  floor,  while  a  bright  red  canopy  is  suspended  from  the 
back  of  the  ring  completely  concealing  her  form  and  dress  even,  and 
making  of  her  simply  a  beautiful  figure.  No  one  can  see  her  face,  but 
she,  of  course,  can  see  quite  a  bit  through  her  veil.  The  wooden  ring 
thus  covered  is  now  ornamented  with  tinsel  to  make  it  look  like  a  crown, 
as  she  is  now  queen  of  this  occasion. 

While  the  musicians  play  a  most  doleful  tune  she  is  led  around 
the  oven  seven  times  to  signify  that  she  is  bidding  farewell  to  the 


230 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


home  of  her  childhood  and  young  maidenhood,  with  all  of  its  tender 
ties,  memories  and  associations.  Having  been  led  seven  times  around 
the  oven  the  bride,  coming  in  great  humility  and  gratitude,  kneels  at 
her  father's  feet  and  kisses  them,  at  the  same  time  she  and  her  father 
weep  most  bitterly,  in  view  of  their  approaching  separation.  Then  her 
father  may  kiss  her  and  pronounce  upon  her  a  father's  blessing,  saying: 
"My  daughter,  may  God  bless  you  and  keep  you  and  make  you  happy 
and  successful,  the  mother  of  sons  and  daughters."  Usually  he  will 
say,  "the  mother  of  seven  sons  and  two  daughters." 

Then  the  bride  goes  in  the  same  way  and  takes  leave  of  her  mother 
and  the  other  members  of  her  family,  after  which  the  groom's  brother 
binds  a  girdle  around  her  as  an  emblem  of  strength,  (for  which  service 
a  cap  is  placed  upon  his  head). 

Her  father-in-law  has  a  horse  ready  for  her  outside  the  house,  while 
the  streets  and  tops  of  the  houses  are  filled  with  noisy  crowds  of  people 
eagerly  waiting  for  the  appearance  of  the  bride. 

The  ladies  conduct  her  out  but  they  are  stopped  at  the  door  by  her 
brother,  who  asks  a  brother's  customary  present,  which  is  at  once  given 
him  by  the  bride's  father-in-law.  As  she  springs  upon  the  horse,  every 
eye  in  the  crowd  is  fixed  upon  her  to  see  if  she  rides  gracefully.  As  soon 
as  she  is  mounted,  the  musicians  change  their  tune  to  a  happy  and  ex- 
citing one. 

Her  father-in-law  now  throws  some  pieces  of  copper  money  upon  her 
head  to  show  his  liberality  and  there  are  always  a  number  of  children 
present  to  snatch  them  up  as  they  fall  to  the  ground.  ( )ne  of  the  bride's 
relatives  accompanies  her,  holding  The  bridle  of  her  horse. 

She  then  moves  on  through  the  streets,  the  crowds  on  the  house 
tops  and  in  the  streets  follow  her,  the  musicians  continue  their  play- 
ing, while  the  whole  party  are  led  by  the  groom's  relatives  dancing  as 
they  go. 

When  they  have  gone  a  little  further,  another  lady  come  to  meet  the 
bride,  carrying  a  child  two  or  three  years  old,  a  boy,  of  course.  She  lifts 
the  bride's  canopy  and  places  the  child  in  her  lap.  The  bride  kisses  him, 
gives  him  a  few  pennies  and  returns  him  to  the  lady.  The  child  signifies 
good  tidings.  The  groom  now  puts  on  his  costume.  Upon  the  cap  that 
lie  wears,  he  places  a  crown  made  of  the  red  feathers  of  the  flamingo. 
He  also  wears  a  sash  and  a  dagger,  which  represents  kingly  power.  For 
this  occasion,  his  groomsman  must  also  prepare  a  "Jumlana"  that  is  a 
piece  of  wood  about  two  feet  square  mounted  upon  a  wooden  handle 
six  feet  long.    This  wooden  square  is  bored  full  of  small  holes  into 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


which  wooden  pegs  are  driven.  Upon  these  pegs  are  stuck  apples, 
pears,  colored  eggs  and  four  pomegranates,  one  on  each  corner,  and  two 
small  wooden  doves  are  perched  upon  the  upper  edge.  Strings  of  figs, 
dates  and  pop-corn  are  also  placed  upon  this  "jumlana"  and  it  is  covered 
with  a  red  handkerchief.  It  looks  like  a  beautifully  ornamented  banner 
and  is  carried  by  his  comrades  along  with  him  as  he  now  goes  upon  a 
conveniently  located  house  top  and  sits  there  like  a  king  upon  his  throne 
to  watch  his  bride  approaching. 

One  of  the  heralds  is  given  a  chicken  from  the  bride's  house  as  a 
present  for  the  groom.  The  bride's  father  also  sends  him  some  clothing, 
consisting  of  a  coat,  a  purse,  a  handkerchief  and  a  cap.  The  latter  must 
be  beautifully  made,  for  he  wears  it  on  this  occasion  and  the  people  look 
at  it  very  closely  to  see  if  the  bride  can  sew  very  nicely.  While  the  bride 
is  passing  through  the  streets  some  of  the  spectators  upon  the  house 
tops  throw  handfuls  of  raisins  upon  her  head.  These  symbolize  sweet- 
ness and  carry  with  them  the  wish  that  the  bride  may  be  very  sweet 
tempered.  At  this  time  the  groom  feels  most  proud  and  happy  as  he  sits 
among  his  companions  upon  the  top  of  a  high  house  dressed  in  his 
wedding  clothes,  and  sees  his  bride  coming  to  him  upon  horseback, 
dressed  in  her  bridal  costume,  with  the  glittering  tinsel  upon  her  crown 
and  the  heralds  firing  pistols  and  guns  and  shouting  'hurrah  at  each 
short  distance.  Hence  they  say  "A  man  is  twice  happy  in  this  life — when 
he  begins  to  walk  and  when  he  is  going  to  be  married.'* 

When  the  bride  approaches  within  a  stone's  throw  of  where  the 
groom  is  waiting  her,  she  is  stopped  and  his  comrades  rise,  and  three 
times  they  give  him  a  sip  of  wine.  As  he  swallows  each  sip  they  shout 
for  joy  most  vociferously  and  the  best  man  hands  him  an  apple  taken 
from  the  "Jumlana,"  which  he  kisses  and  throws  towards  the  bride.  The 
wine  symbolizes  joy  and  blessing  and  the  apple,  love.  The  apples  usually 
miss  their  mark,  and  falling  to  the  ground  are  quickly  picked  up  by 
the  crowd  of  children  around  her.  The  child  who  gets  the  first  apple 
thrown  is  to  be  the  first  one  to  be  married  of  that  group.  After  the 
apples  have  been  thrown  at  the  bride,  she  will  move  on  to  the  house.  In 
the  meantime  the  groom  has, been  waiting  on  the  house  top,  entertained 
by  his  comrades,  but  now,  having  disposed  of  the  bride,  the  musicians 
and  the  crowd  will  return  to  the  groom,  whom  they  now  escort  to  the 
house.    After  which  the  priest  comes  to  perform  the  wedding  ceremony. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  wedding  ceremony,  the  priest  takes  two 
threads,  one  red  the  other  white,  twists  them  together^  and  places  them 
upon  the  groom's  head,  then  he  takes  two  shorter  ones  of  the  same 


332 


colors,  twists  them  in  the  same  way  and  places  them  upon  the  bride's 
head.  These  threads  are  emblems,  the  red  happiness,  the  white  of 
purity,  and  their  being  thus  twisted  together  means  that  whereas  the 
bride  and  groom  were  unlike  as  these  two  colors,  they  are  now  to  become 
as  one  flesh,  as  Adam  said  of  Eve :  "This  is  now  bone  of  my  bone  and 
flesh  of  my  flesh."  The  longer  threads  upon  the  groom's  head  mean  that 
his  hand  shall  be  longer  over  the  bride,  that  is,  that  he  shall  exercise 
authority  over  her. 

The  priest  also  takes  a  little  wine  and  water  and  soil  from  a  church 
and  mixes  them  together  in  a  dish  with  a  cross.  The  wine  and  water 
signifying  blessing  and  mixing  as  they  do  indicate  that  although  the 
bride  and  groom  have  heretofore  been  two  distinct  elements  they  will 
henceforth  be  united  as  one  and  become  truly  one  flesh. 

The  cross  in  the  Nestorian  church  is  a  sign  of  victory,  since  salvation 
has  been  wrought  for  us  through  Jesus  Christ  upon  the  cross. 

There  are  many  superstitutions  connected  with  the  marriage  cere- 
mony. 

The  groom's  parents  now  come  to  congratulate,  first  the  groom  then 
the  bride. 

The  bride  wears  her  wedding  costume  for  a  week  or  two  after  the 
marriage,  but  she  does  not  keep  her  face  quite  so  closely  covered  as  she 
did  during  the  wedding,  for  the  customs  of  the  country  allow  her  to  lift 
her  veil  a  little  now.  She  stays  in  a  house  in  which  her  husband's  fam- 
ily live  and  sits  in  the  room  a  little  apart  from  them.  Whenever  a  man 
enters  the  house  she  arises ;  whereupon  lie  says,  "Thank  you,  bride,  sit 
down."  By  rising  from  her  seat  she  means  she  is  ready  for  his  service. 
She  continues  this  practice  for  a  week  or  two. 

At  the  expiration  of  forty  days  after  her  marriage  the  bride's  mother 
is  allowed  to  see  her.  She  is  in  company  with  her  husband  and  other 
relatives  at  this  time  carrying  with  them  some  suitable  food.  Among  the 
Nestorians  it  is  customary  for  a  bride's  parents  to  send  a  man  to  bring 
her  home  for  a  visit  of  two  or  three  weeks  at  Easter  time.  A  few  days 
after  she  has  gone  to  her  parent's  home  her  husband  will  follow  to 
visit  there  also.  Upon  his  arrival  his  father-in-law  gives  him  a  present 
and  when  the  visit  is  ended  he  takes  his  bride  with  him  and  returns  to 
his  own  home. 

After  this,  she  can  do  some  out  door  work.  If  a  bride  is  goodnatured 
and  well  bred  she  will  keep  on  her  veil  (yashmak)  and  not  speak  very 
openly  with  her  father-in-law  and  mother-in-law  and  will  be  highly 
thought  <>f.    The  marriage  ties  so  sacredly  performed  are  never  broken. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


333 


for  a  Nestorian  once  married  is  married  forever,  unless  death  should 
break  the  tie.  Should  a  poor  match  be  made  it  is  certainly  unfortunate, 
but  they  have  to  put  up  with  each  other  without  resorting  to  divorce, 
for  divorce,  while  so  common  with  the  Mohammedan,  who  dismisses  his 
wife  with  a  brutal  way  (get  out)  without  even  troubling  the  court  house 
officials,  is  a  practice  entirely  unknown  to  the  Nestorians.  Should  he 
have  an  uncongenial  companion  he  has  to  endure  it  with  the  same 
kind  of  patience  as  he  would  endure  a  headache,  which,  though  he  may 
try  to  cure,  he  would  hardly  cut  it  off,  for  it  is  a  part  of  his  body. 

FUNERAL  SERVICES. 

Funeral  services  differ,  according  to  the  age  of  the  deceased.  As 
soon  as  a  man  dies,  word  is  sent  to  the  priest  and  deacon.  They  come  to 
the  house  of  the  deceased.  The  priest  will  consecrate  some  water,  bathe 
the  body;  first  the  right  arm,  then  the  left,  then  the  neck,  then  the  rest 
of  the  body.  All  this  time  the  mourning  relatives  will  sing  psalms.  Then 
the  body  is  ready  to  be  put  into  the  coffin.  The  priest  and  deacon  con- 
tinue singing,  the  youngest  deacon  carries  the  censor  and  repeats  a 
prayer  until  they  arrive  at  the  grave.  Before  taking  the  corpse  to  the 
grave,  the  friends  of  the  deceased  come  to  bid  him  good-bye.  At  the 
grave  the  priest  says  a  prayer.  The  body  is  lowered,  and  the  priest  takes 
some  earth  and  sprinkles  it  upon  the  coffin,  saying:  "From  earth 
you  came,  to  earth  you  return,"  after  which  all  the  people  will  do  the 
same.  While  they  are  filling  up  the  grave,  the  priest  and  deacon  con- 
tinue singing.  After  this  the  priest  makes  the  sign  of  the  Trinity  on  the 
grave,  commencing  at  the  head  (which  means  that  Christ  came  from 
the  Father  and  descended  into  the  grave).  After  the  service,  the  people, 
being  unclean  because  they  have  touched  the  body  of  a  corpse,  are  taken 
to  a  brook  and  after  the  priest  has  blessed  the  water,  they  wash  their 
face  and  hands,  then  they  are  cleansed.  They  now  return  to  the  home 
of  the  deceased  and  take  two  or  three  meals  at  the  expense  of  the  mourn- 
ing relatives,  while  continually  repeating:  "May  God  give  him  rest." 
After  three  days  they  all  visit  the  grave  again  and  the  priest  again  makes 
the  sign  of  the  Trinity,  beginning  at  the  foot,  (which  signifies  the  resur- 
rection of  Christ).  After  this  the  people  shave  and  bathe  and  have  a 
great  feast  to  celebrate  the  close  of  their  time  of  mourning.  After  seven 
days  they  have  another  feast  and  a  year  later  they  give  offerings  and  cele- 
brate the  Lord's  Supper. 


234 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


NESTORIAN  CHURCHES. 

Many  of  their  churches  are  built  of  stone,  while  others  are  made  of 
brick  and  clay.  Some  of  the  buildings  are  1,300  years  old  and  will  stand 
many  years  to  come.  The  walls  are  about  eight  feet  thick  at  the  base, 
gradually  tapering  toward  the  top.  In  the  older  churches  the  doors 
are  quite  low  and  it  is  necessary  for  a  man  to  stoop  to  enter.  It  is  be- 
lieved by  some  that  the  doors  were  built  in  this  way  that  the  church  might 
be  used  as  a  place  of  refuge,  rolling  stones  in  the  doorway  after  entering. 
Others  say  the  object  was  to  prevent  horses,  cattle  and  other  animals 
from  entering.  These  churches  are  regarded  as  most  sacred  places  and 
are  called  houses  of  God.  There  is  an  interior  stairway  leading  to  the 
roof,  which  is  necessary  for  repairing  the  roof  or  shoveling  off  snow. 
The  yard  in  front  of  a  church  is  shaded  with  elm  trees ;  it  is  used  as  a 
burial  ground.  Extending  from  each  corner  of  the  roof  is  a  pair  of 
horns  of  a  wild  goat,  which  is  a  sign  of  sacrifice.  There  is  a  small  room 
in  the  rear  of  the  building  which  is  called  the  most  holy  place.  In  this 
room  the  priests  perform  certain  ceremonies ;  and  no  other  people  are 
allowed  to  enter  it  at  any  time.  Before  this  room  is  a  small  pulpit  on 
which  are  placed  a  cross,  Bible  and  some  ceremonial  books.  The  only 
windows  are  a  few  small  openings  just  below  the  roof.  Candles  are 
burned  during  the  hours  of  service  to  light  the  room,  and  incense  is 
burned  as  a  ceremonial  and  to  produce  a  pleasing  odor.  There  are  no 
pictures  on  the  walls,  but  there  are  some  decorations  in  the  way  of  finely 
embroidered  silk  draperies  donated  by  some  of  the  worshipers.  Reading 
Scripture  and  prayer  book  and  chanting  Psalms  are  the  main  features 
of  worship.  There  is  no  music  except  a  number  of  small  bells  on  the 
walls,  which  the  worshipers  ring  as  they  enter  the  building.  The  audi- 
ence sits  on  the  floor  or  stands  through  the  service.  Assyrians  believe 
the  two  chief  ordinances  to  be  the  Lord's  supper  and  baptism.  The  or- 
daining of  priests  and  marriage  are  ordinances  that  rank  next  in  impor- 
tance. Baptism  is  administered  by  bishops  and  elders.  All  the  children 
of  a  member  are  baptized  by  immersion.  Some  believe  that  baptism  re- 
generates a  child,  while  others  say  it  will  have  a  good  effect,  provided  the 
parencs  give  the  child  proper  training  thereafter. 

The  Lord's  Supper  is  administered  with  much  ritual  on  festival  days, 
such  as  Easter,  Christmas  and  Ascension  Day.  This  ceremony  is  more 
highly  honored  than  any  other  ordinance,  as  it  commemorates  the  death 
and  victory  of  Christ.  Both  bread  and  wine  are  used.  A  few  years  ago, 
and  even  now  in  some  places,  it  was  a  custom  to  make  the  bread  and. 


n.;ft»Tg,  -aaBWaa :  ZaSasia  V>^o?  »*  '■fja^t^^os  yia :  joZS.* 
.en     a  i&j^Jao)  }&i : 613  :  Zjtfaaaa  &a*)i»L. 4'av.a  .  i<Vn\ 

^gTgai.juM.ta? £u.a .  os  . .a-.Jj^.  &.as  /j.a.,3  .ISy^i  i»asoa  ^nAcJwb  .jiAa? 
«  "S>?  leases ;  a.'Jia.oaa  •■  j^rtt.Tria jShao  iaoaa  «Tr>T,u  jaaua  A<Mjflarfo 
ASAij  Za*Z  iaa  ijfi***.  >a».  Uiaa  ^aaaaao  s  ,&»»a*a  ISa^;  Z^nnftgt: 

jlaht'h  Aiajjjsoa  w^iftiii^  .  Jaja^.Tvia  ap««3>  -/^i^j^oiaaa  ^.a 
jaaarS<aa3         ^yi^-i;  .  JAaiAso'  ^3^719  uao&So         '•  ^aai^waast 


Ordination  Diploma  from   Mar  Shuman,  the  Nestorian 
Patriarch,  securing  to  Isaac  Adams  kind  reception 
among  all  Nestorians,  as  well  as  the  legal 
authority  to  teach  and  preach 
among  them. 


:#5 


236 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


wine  from  gleanings  brought  in  from  the  field  and  vineyards  by  virgins. 
This  was  considered  pure  and  most  acceptable  as  it  had  belonged  to  no 
man.  They  do  not  believe  with  the  Catholics  that  the  bread  and  wine 
are  turned  into  the  flesh  and  blood. of  Christ,  but  they  put  much  empha- 
.sis  on  these  ingredients  after  the  same  have  been  consecrated.  They  are 
then  holy.  On  the  night  previous  to  communion  day  the  priests  and 
deacons  go  to  the  church  shortly  after  midnight,  and  entering  into  the 
most  holy  place,  make  the  bread  for  use  on  the  next  day.  The  priest 
himself  kneads  the  dough.  This  bread  is  considered  more  sacred  than 
that  made  in  the  ordinary  way.  After  the  bread  has  been  made  the  re- 
mainder of  the  night  is  spent  in  chanting  Psalms,  reading  the  Scriptures 
and  prayer  book.  An  hour  before  sunrise  the  people  flock  to  the  church. 
When  the  church  is  full  of  worshipers  the  priest  mounts  the  pulpit,  chants 
the  sacred  words  for  an  hour  or  more,  the  audience  remaining  in  perfect 
silence  until  he  reaches  the  end  of  a  Psalm  or  the  end  of  the  service, 
when  all  respond  "Amen."  The  priest  and  a  deacon  stand  in  the  pulpit 
to  administer  the  sacrament.  Communicants  come  forward  one  by  one, 
and  the  priest  puts  a  small  piece  of  bread  in  their  mouths  and  the  deacon 
gives  the  wine.  Children  under  7  years  of  age  do  not  partake  of  the 
sacrament.  On  these  occasions  the  priest  and  deacon  wear  long  white 
robes  of  silk  or  cotton  tied  about  the  waist  with  a  long  silk  girdle.  A  tur- 
ban is  worn  on  the  head. 

Their  faith,  as  described  in  some  ancient  manuscripts,  is  purely 
evangelical.  They  believe  in  the  trinity,  God  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy 
Ghost.  These  three  persons  are  co-equal,  co-eternal,  unmixed  and  in- 
separable. Their  clergy  does  not  claim  the  power  to  forgive  sins.  They 
accept  the  apostle's  creed  and  it  is  recited  by  the  clergy  and  re- 
ligious men.  They  deny  the  confession,  image  worship  and  doctrine  of 
purgatory.  But  the  church  has  fallen  into  decay  under  the  persecutions 
of  Mohammedans,  and  they  now  in  their  ignorance  worship  souls  or 
pray  to  the  saints.  They  have  adopted  much  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
heresies;  many  days  of  fasting  are  observed,  as  fifty  days  before  Easter, 
twenty-five  days  before  Christmas,  every  Friday  and  Wednesday,  and 
others.  During  these  fasts  the  old  people  take  no  food  until  noon.  On 
these  fasting  days  the  people  will  abstain  from  meats  or  fatty  foods,  etc. 
In  times  of  persecutions  their  schools  and  books  were  destroyed  and  the 
people  became  ignorant,  at  the  same  time  the  Catholics  introduced 
among  them  their  literature,  which  changed  their  prevailing  doctrines. 


RELIGIONS'OFftPERSIA. 


237 


HISTORICAL  MISSION  WORK. 

Religiously  Persia  is  a  very  important  link  in  the  chain  of  Moslem 
lands  from  Morocco  to  the  walls  of  China  and  the  frontiers  of  India. 
This  chain  we  may  consider  as  broken  in  a  measure  by  the  French  occu- 
pation of  Algiers  and  the  British  occupation  of  Egypt,  and  Russia's  an- 
nexation of  the  great  khanates  of  Turkestan.  Of  the  four  independent 
Moslem  powers,  Morocco,  Turkey,  Persia  and  Afghanistan,  Persia  has 
probably  the  most  innate  vitality  and  the  best  prospect  of  national  life, 
and  is  at  the  same  time  the  most  open  to  religious  change.  In  Turkey 
the  Sultan  is  caliph,  the  government  is  a  theocracy,  and  the  teachers  of 
religion  must  be  kept  in  harmony  with  the  state.  In  Persia  there  is 
more  antagonism.  The  king  and  his  rulers  are  glad  to  humble  the  Mol- 
lahs  and  not  infrequently  the  highest  Mushtahid  of  a  city  is  called  to  the 
capital  or  cast  into  prison  because  he  has  overstepped  his  limit  and 
excited  mobs  to  riot  or  opposed  the  civil  governor.  In  this  conflict  be- 
tween the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  powers  there  is  an  opening  for  a  large 
degree  of  toleration.  Large  communities  of  people  in  Persia  were  never 
content  under  the  Moslem  system  and  they  wear  it  as  a  yoke.  The  Ali- 
Illahees  form  the  majority  of  the  population  in  some  districts,  and  in 
other  districts  the  Babis,  adherents  of  a  mystical  belief  that  is  under- 
mining the  whole  structure  of  Islam. 

/Persia  is  not  -yetAike  Japan,  a  nation  in  search  of  a  religion,  but 
there  are  many  indications  that  the  cycle  of  Islam  is  drawing  to  a  close, 
and  thousands  are  weary  and  heavy  laden/and  some  are  hearing  the 
voice  of  Jesus  say,  "Come  unto  me,  and  I  will  give  you  rest." 

/in  Kurdistan  and  some  parts  of  Persia  live  the  Yezidees  or  Devil- 
Worshipers.  Hundreds  of  them  have  been  killed  in  the  attempt  to  force 
them  under  the  yoke  of  Islam.  These  poor  heathenish  people  in  their 
distress  turn  to  missionaries  and  beg  to  be  enrolled  as  Protestants  and 
to  receive  Christian  instruction.  They  are  verily  a  heathen  race  with 
Satan  enthroned  as  their  chief  deity.  Their  belief  is  that  for  10,000  years 
the  government  of  this  world  is  committed  by  the  Supreme  God  to  His 
Satanic  Majesty.  /Among  the  Jews,  who  number  about  50,000  in  these 
parts  of  Persia  and  Kurdistan  mountains,  there  is  a  similar  unrest.  Some 
are  looking  to  Jerusalem  for  orders  to  return.  Some  are  asking  when 
will  our  Messiah  come,  and  some  are  reading  the  evidence  and  saying, 
"He  has  come."  Some  also  who  at  first  are  drawn  by  the  words  of 
Jesus  fall  back  into  the  subtle  pantheistic  doctrines  of  Babism.  It  is 
a  singular  fact  that  in  Russia  some  of  the  dissenters  from  the  established 


PAUL  JOHN.  DR.  ADAMS. 


238 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


Church  have  embraced  Judaism,  and  quite  as  singular  that  in  Persia 
there  is  a  tendency  of  dissenting  Jews  to  accept  Babism.  But  here  again, 
there  is  the  better  sign  that  Jesus  Christ  by  His  character  and  His  cross 
and  His  Spirit  from  on  high,  is  in  the  hearts  of  this  long  exiled  people. 

Tile  held  of  Persia  contains  a  large  number  of  nominal  Christians  as 
well  as  Jews.  The  heart  of  Kurdistan  is  in  that  field  and  we  are  called 
uporTtb  have~a  great  share.  Oh  how  little  is  done  for  great  Kurdistan, 
whose  people  number  about  5,000,000.  Taken  together  what  a  mar- 
velous field  it  is !  What  field  anywhere  can  compare  with  it  for  mar- 
velous variety  and  wonderful  possibility?  We  are  laying  foundations 
and  can  see  but  little,  but  the  great  Master  Builder  is  going  to  rear  a 
temple  there.  What  a  temple  it  will  be  when  all  the  varied  stones  have 
been  quarried  and  polished  and  built  onto  Christ  the  corner-stone  !  Three 
great  racial  families  of  the  globe,  Aryan,  Semitic  and  Turanian,  are  here 
represented.  The  contrasts  in  natural  scenery  are  no  more  striking  than 
those  of  races.  The  snowy  crags  of  Jelu,  the  burning  plains  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, the  rocky  canyons  of  Ravandooz,  the  deep  gorges  of  the  Zab,  the 
fertile  plains  of  Oroomiah  are  not  more  dissimilar  than  are  the  Armenian, 
the  suave  Jacobite,  the  crafty  Persian,  the  stolid  Turk,  the  wild  Arab,  the 
savage  Kurd,  the  patient  Jew,  and  the  oppressed  Nestorian.  There  is 
the  orthodox  Islam  of  the  Sunni,  the  heretical  Islam  of  the  Shiah,  the 
reformed  Islam  of  the  Babi,  and  the  heathenish  Islam  of  the  Ali- 
Illahi.  Again,  since  Persia  became  Mohammedan  and  so  far  closed 
to  Christian  truth,  God  has  opened  special  ways  of  access  to  the  people. 
His  providence  has  in  the  turmoil  of  the  centuries,  planted  here  and 
there  through  the  land,  fragments  of  Christian  churches.  To  relight 
in  these  the  candle  of  the  spirits  presence,  long  since  extinct,  has  been 
an  essential  step  toward  illuminating  the  surrounding  mass  of  Moham- 
medan darkness. 

History  began  in  Persia.  Eden  was  in  or  within  her^borders.  The 
builders  of  Babel  had  come  "from  the  east"  to  the  land  of  two  rivers. 
There  was  the  home  of  civilization  and  the  nursery  of  the  nations.  Iran 
or  Persia  in  its  largest  sense  was  a  true  center  of  population,  of  knowl- 
edge, of  languages  and  of  arts,  which  instead  of  traveling  westward  only, 
as  has  been  fancifully  supposed,  or  eastward  as  might  with  equal  reason 
have  been  asserted  were  expanded  in  all  directions,  to  all  regions  of  the 
world.  Of  the  founder  of  the  Persian  Empire,  Isaiah  prophecied,  "Thus 
saith  the  Lord  to  His  anointed,  to  Cyrus,  whose  right  hand  I  have 
holden  to  subdue  nations  before  him."  I  will  go  before  thee,  Cyrus  is 
my  shepherd,  and  will  perform  all  my  pleasure.    Thus,  by  the  hand  of 


240 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


God,  the  little  kingdom  of  Pars  on  the  gulf,  Iran,  widened  and  con- 
quered till  it  comprised  the  western  half  of  Asia,  and  the  lower  valley 
of  the  Nile.  The  great  empire  to  some  degree  symbolized  the  glorious 
and  everlasting  kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  Cyrus  was  a  type  of  the 
great  shepherd  of  the  sheep.  By  Cyrus  and  his  successors  the  Jews 
were  delivered  from  the  Assyrians,  were  restored  to  Judea  with  their 
consecrated  vessels  of  silver  and  gold,  and  were  authorized  and  protected 
in  rebuilding  Jerusalem.  A  large  part  of  the  race,  however,  remained 
in  the  land  of  captivity  and  were  saved  from  destruction  by  the  beautiful 
queen  Esther;  they  had  dispersed  to  all  the  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
provinces  of  Xerxes,  and  the  dominion  of  Cyrus  had  included  also  the 
cities  of  the  Medes  to  which  the  ten  tribes  had  been  carried  away.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  also,  that  the  Persians  were  the  one  people  who  could 
sympathize  with  the  Jews  in  the  hatred  of  idolatry,  and  there  is  evi- 
dence that  a  Persian  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was  used  in  the 
synagogues.  From  this  data,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  chosen 
people  were  exiled  for  their  disloyalty  to  Jehovah,  we  may  safely  infer 
that  his  word  and  worship  were  carried  throughout  the  vast  empire  of 
their  captors  in  Persia  as  in  the  Roman  Empire,  the  dispersion  was  a 
Providential  preparation  for  Christianity. 

Persia's  historic  relation  to  the  kingdom  of  God  began,  it  may  be, 
when  the  wise  men  from  the  East  seeing  his  star  came  and  worshiped 
the  new  born  King;  they  were  Persians,  as  their  coming  forshadowed 
the  bowing  of  Persia  and  all  nations  to  our  Lord ;  and  when  the  fulfill- 
ment of  the  prophecy  "I  will  pour  out  my  spirit  on  all  flesh,"  began  at 
Pentecost,  the  strangers  present  whose  names  are  first  on  the  list  are 
"Parthians,  Medes,  Elamites,"  all  dwellers  in  this  same  land.  Peter  him- 
self, accompanied  by  his  wife,  toiled  over  the  fiery  deserts,  and  preached 
at  least  at  Babylon.  Mark  was  with  him  and  tradition  says  that  two 
others  of  the  apostles,  also  Thomas  and  Matthew  labored  in  the  Persian 
field. 

Of  early  Persian  Christianity,  little  is  known.  Historians  tell  us 
that  it  flourished  and  spread,  and  from  the  silence  of  history  it  is  thought 
that  under  the  Parthians  there  was  no  long  and  fierce  persecution.  But 
with  the  rise  of  the  Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides  (A.  D.  226),  there 
came  a  revival  of  the  ancient  worship,  and  a  determined  effort  was  made 
to  put  down  all  other  religion.  From  the  time  of  King  Sapor,  when 
Christianity  conquered  heathenism  in  the  Roman  empire,  the  Christians 
of  Persia  threw  in  their  sympathies  with  the  Christian  state.  Almost 
simultaneously,  therefore,  with  the  war  against  Constantine,  there  began 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


241 


in  the  year  339  a  rigorous  persecution  of  the  Christians.  It  continued 
forty  years,  and  according  to  Mares,  bishop  of  Seleucia  at  the  time,  fur- 
nished 160,000  martyrs.  This  may  be  an  exaggeration,  but  the  Syrian 
"Acts  of  Persian  Martyrs"  records  their  great  numbers  and  terrible  suf- 
ferings. In4io,T:he  tolerant  Yezdegerd  I.  permitted  a  synod  of  Christians 
to  meet  in  his  capital,  and  sent  the  primate  of  the  church  on  a  mission 
to  the  Roman  Emperor.  The  severe  persecutions  of  his  successor,  Bah- 
man  V.,  a  favorite  hero  of  Persian  tradition,  ended  with  the  war  with 
Rome  in  422.  Religious-  freedom  was  then  g4jaranteed-Jby— treaty  to 
Zoroastrians  in  the  Roman  empire,  and  to  Christians  in  Persia.  But 
the  accession  of . his-saryXezde-gerd-TL, -in  438,^v#s-nrariee4-by-f€newed 
persecution  of  Jews  and  Christians.  In  consequence,  a  rebellion  in  Ar- 
menia was  not  quelled  until  the  king  promised  to  his  subjects  complete 
liberty  of  worship.  There  were  also  times  of  fearless  missionary  enter- 
prise. In  334,  a  bishop  was  settled  in  far-off  Tros,  in  Khorasan,  A 
metropolitan  implying  several  bishops  and  numerous  converts,  existed 
in  Mero  as  early  as  420  A.  D.,  and  about  that  time  a  see  was  established 
at  Herat. 

During  these  centuries  the  mind  of  Persia  was  thoroughly  hostile 
to  the  kingdom  of  Jesus  Christ.  Her  philosophy  and  religion  furnished 
the  germs  of  many  of  the  great  heresies — Gnosticism,  Manichaeism,  and 
other  systems  of  theosophy,  that  rent  the  Christian  church.  Bishop  Nes- 
torius,  of  Constantinople,  was  willing  to  call  Mary  the  Mother  of  God, 
but  denied  her  divinity,  and  he  held  to  the  union  of  two  natures  in  one 
person  in  Christ.  Falsely  accused,  he  was  condemned  unheard,  and  ban- 
ished. His  followers,  finally  driven  from  the  Roman  Empire  in  489  A.  D., 
found  a  home  in  Persia.  Borsumos,  the  founder  of  the  seminary  at 
Nisibis,  which  sent  out  so  many  learned  missionaries,  had  worked  for 
his  fellow  believers  from  440  to  485,  with  such  marvelous  enterprise 
and  skill-  that  they  became  the  chief  Christian  sect  of  the  country. 

It  was  the  mission  of  the  Nestorians  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  the 
great  heathen  East,  and  they  were  not  unfaithful  to  their  opportunity. 
"For  centuries,"  says  Tracy  in  his  history,  "they  maintained  missions 
in  Tartary,  China,  and  other  eastern  regions."  Their  churches  were 
scattered  from  Syria  and  Cyprus  to  Pekin,  and  from  the  coasts  of  Mala- 
bar and  Ceylon  to  the  borders  of  Siberia.  Some  of  the  Chinese  emperors 
favored  Christianity,  and  ordered  the  erection  of  numerous  churches. 
The  converts  are  supposed  to  have  numbered  more  than  the  Greek  and 
Latin  communions.  If  the  monument  of  Sigan  Fu,  China,  is  trustworthy, 
they  had  preached  Christ  in  that  land  before  636  A.  D.   Prominent  men- 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


tion  should  be  made  here  of  the  scholar  and  missionary,  Subschalyesn, 
who  about  the  close  of  the  eighth  century,  preached  with  great  success 
to  the  Gelae  on  the  Caspian  shore.  Though  formal  compacts  of  toler- 
ation may  not  have  been  made  by  Mohammed  and  Omar  with  the  Nes- 
torians,  as  has  been  asserted  by  some  writers  and  denied  by  others,  yet 
many  of  them  occupied  high  places  of  state  during  the  Arabic  domina- 
tion. And  though  the  Arabs  ruled  the  country  from  the  decisive  battle 
of  Nehorvend,  in  462,  yet  Islam  was  compelled  to  compromise  with  the 
more  flexible  and  more  tolerant  genius  of  the  Persians.  Hence  the 
churches'  opportunities  for  proselytism.  But  with  all  its  opportunities 
and  achievements,  Nestorianism  never  rose  to  be  more  than  a  sect  of 
Christianity,  in  which  "the  simplicity  of  the  gospel  was  fashioned  and 
painted  with  the  colors  of  the  Syriac  theology."  Its  power  was  vitiated 
by  superstition  and  therefore  it  proved  unable  to  permanently  mold 
and  purify  the  nations.  By  the  year  1000  Islam  was  advancing  and  by 
the  year  1300  had  gained  the  ascendency  in  the  countries  east  of  the 
Caspian,  where  Christianity  had  long  been  firmly  established.  The  big- 
oted and  zealous  Mohammed,  sultan  of  Cabul  in  the  eleven  century,  had, 
it  is  thought,  made  millions  of  Moslems  by  his  sword.  And  when,  at  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  ferocious  Tamerlane,  the  greatest  of 
conquerors,  swept  over  Asia  like  a  whirlwind  of  fire,  there  followed  the 
terrible  anarchy  and  persecution  that  shrivelled  and  blasted  the  churches. 
Romish  missions  also  accelerated  their  rapid  decline.  By  1500  A.  D. 
Nestorian  Christianity  was  almost  extinct  in  the  lands  of  its  , greatest 
triumphs.  The  miserable  remnant  of  the  church,  that  for  five  centuries 
had  carried  the  cross  over  Asia,  was  discovered  early  in  the  present  cen- 
tury hid  away  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan. 

John  de  Monte  Corvino,  the  great  Romish  missionary  to  the  Mon- 
gols and  Chinese  and  who  became  archbishop  of  Pekin,  labored  at 
Tabriz,  Persia,  near  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  His  work  was 
short,  but  very  successful.  Speedy  conversions,  however,  were  followed 
by  speedy  defections.  About  1341  A.  I),  the  Romanists  produced  a 
faulty  and  interpolated  translation  of  the  four  Gospels.  In  the  seven- 
teenth century  they  seemed  to  have,  at  least,  a  firm  foothold  in  the  coun- 
try, but  their  influence  gradually  weakened.  Now  they  have  missions  in 
several  cities  with  schools,  churches  and  two  or  three  small  nunneries; 
all  the  work  of  the  present  century.  The  number  of  the  pupils  and  con- 
verts is  about  5,000. 

In  1747,  two  heroic  Moravians,  Hocker  and  Rueffer,  medical  mis- 
sionaries, penetrated  to  Isphahan  to  work  among  the  fire-worshipers. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA, 


243 


They  suffered  repeated  robbery  and  hardship  such  as  being  compelled  to 
travel  over  the  deserts  in  the  burning  sun  on  foot  and  nearly  naked. 
Because  of  the  anarchy  and  misery  of  the  land  under  Nadir  Shah,  they 
left  the  country,  unable  to  accomplish  anything.  With  the  nineteenth 
century  dawned  the  era  of  evangelical  missions  in  Persia.  Among  the 
worthy  men  devoted  to  this  work  was  Henry  Martyn.  On  June  9,  181 1, 
he  reached  Shiraz  from  India.  In  that  city  of  Persian  learning  and 
Moslem  bigotry,  "seat  of  Satan,"  as  he  named  it,  he  revised  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Xew  Testament,  and  boldly  preached  the  Son  of  God.  The 
story  of  that  work,  his  controversies  with  the  keenest  teachers  of  Islam, 
of  his  terrible  journey  to  present  a  copy  of  the  translation  to  the  Shah, 
his  three  months'  sickness  at  Tabriz,  his  last  ride,  and  lonely  death  at 
Tocat,  October  16,  1812,  has  inspired  his  successors  for  more  than  80 
years.  (No  finer  missionary  consecration  has  blessed  the  Church  of 
Christ.) 

In  1829,  Rev.  Dr.  Pfander,  of  the  Basle  Society,  entered  Tabriz. 
The  fruit  of  his  brief  labor  was  various  treatises,  and  in  particular  the 
important  "Balance  of  Truth/'  exhibiting  the  evidences  of  Mohammedan- 
ism and  Christianity.  Rev.  Frederick  Hans  and  other  Germans  after  a 
four-years'  struggle  with  unscrupulous  bigotry  at  Tabriz,  were  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  in  1837.  Grover  worked  at  Bagdad  from  1829  to 
1833,  and  Merrick  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  from  1835  to  1845. 
Their  efforts,  largely  failures,  were  mainly  on  behalf  of  Mussulmans. 
Dr.  William  Glen,  of  the  Scottish  Missionary  Society,  entered  the  field 
in  July,  1838.  He  had  spent  several'years  at  Astrachan,  Russia,  where 
he  had  worked  at  a  Persian  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  Com- 
pleting this  in  1847,  he  went  to  Scotland  to  superintend  the  printing. 
At  the  age  of  70  he  returned,  and  lived  at  Teheran,  to  aid  in  circulating 
the  Scriptures.  In  the  court  of  the  old  Armenian  church  in  that  city,  is 
a  mural  tablet  in  his  memory.  What  stars  will  shine  in  their  crowns, 
who  opened  to  Persia's  millions  the  word  of  life.  About  1832,  Messrs. 
Smith  and  Dwight  were  sent  by  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  to  explore  the  re- 
gions of  Northern  Persia.  They  decided  to  establish  a  mission  among 
the  Nestorians. 

In  1835  Messrs.  Perkins  and  Grant  were  appointed  the  first  mission- 
aries ;  they  arrived  at  Oroomiah  and  established  a  school.  The  school- 
room was  in  a  basement.  They  had  no  books,  but  just  used  wall  cards. 
The  studies  were  confined  to  the  Bible,  a  little  arithmetic  and  geography. 
The  pupils  consisted  of  bishops,  priests,  elders  and  deacons  of  the 
old  Nestorian  Church.    In  1843  Mr.  Stoddard  was  appointed  superin- 


244 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


tendent  of  the  school  in  "Sery,"  about  three  miles  out  of  Oroomiah 
city.  The  condition  of  women  in  Persia  in  the  year  1835  when  the 
missionaries  first  went  there  was  very  different  from  that  of  today.  At 
that  time  only  one  woman  in  the  whole  country  could  read.  Her  name 
was  Helena,  the  sister  of  the  Patriarch.  At  that  time  the  houses  were 
large,  and  the  whole  family  connection  lived  in  the  one  home,  sometimes 
thirty  in  one  house.  Women  were  treated  as  slaves.  After  doing  the 
housework  they  had  to  work  in  the  fields  like  men  and  care  for  their 
little  ones  while  they  worked.  At  the  same  time  they  were  often  brutally 
abused  by  their  husbands  and  called  cats,  cows,  donkeys,  etc.  The 
first  missionaries  were  greatly  used  by  God  to  scatter  the  deep  darkness. 
It  was  with  great  difficulty  that  they  found  opportunity  to  teach  a  few 
small  girls  a  short  time  each  day.  The  work  progressed  very  slowly. 
In  1843  the  well-known  Miss  Fisk  established  a  boarding  school.  She 
only  understood  one  word  in  the  Syriac  language,  the  word  "girl." 
When  she  would  meet  with  people,  she  would  ask  for  a  girl  and  pass  on. 
The  people  thought  she  wanted  to  make  bees  of  them  and  make  them 
fly  to  America,  so  they  would  not  let  them  go.  At  last  she  found  four, 
and  one  morning  while  sitting  in  her  room  she  saw  Mar  Yohannan 
coming  with  two  girls.  She  met  him  at  the  door,  and  her  heart  was  so 
full  of  love  that  she  wept  for  joy.  He  told  her  that  they  were  her  property 
and  that  none  could  take  them  away.  She  had  no  books.  The  lessons 
were  written  on  a  long  paper  and  hung  on  the  walls.  Out  of  these 
schools  hundreds  of  young  men  and  women  have  been  educated  and  en- 
lightened and  fed  on  the  living  word  of  God,  and  they  have,  indeed,  been 
as  salt  to  every  house  or  community  they  have  gone  to. 

All  the  work  of  the  American  board  in  Persia  was  in  1871  trans- 
ferred to  the  Presbyterian  board  of  the  United  States  of  America.  At 
present  they  have  about  twenty-four  hundred  communicants  and  large 
attendance  in  their  schools.  In  1869  the  English  Missionary  Society 
occupied  Isphahan  later  on  also  Bushire.  American  missionaries  are  at 
present  located  at  Teheran,  Mamadan,  Tabriz  and  Oroomiah.  A  num- 
ber of  out-stations  are  occupied  by  native  helpers  and  the  rest  of  the  ten 
millions  are  practically  uncared  for.  A  majority  of  the  large  cities  and 
nearly  all  of  the  smaller  ones  are  not  even  occupied  as  out-stations.  In 
1887  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  London,  sent  missionaries  to  Oroo- 
miah who  are  co-operating  with  the  Nestorian  Church.  In  1894  the 
Lutheran  missionaries  for  Mohammedans,  under  the  auspices  of  Pastor 
Fabcr  of  Berlin,  Germany,  were  sent  to  make  their  headquarters  at  Oroo- 
miah.   The  missionaries  were  Zerweek  and  Kitzle;  but  they  were  not 


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LORD'S  PRAYER  WRITTEN  IN  EIGHT  DIFFERENT  LANGUAGES. 


246 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


careful  enough  to  conceal  their  plan  of  labor  and  told  everywhere  their 
intentions  and  desires  for  the  future.  The  plan  was  made  public  by  the 
press  as  well  as  by  words.  All  their  plans  were  communicated  to  the 
Shah  of  Persia,  who  telegraphed  his  order  to' these  missionaries  to  leave 
at  once  his  country  and  depart  from  its  borders.  As  there  is  no  religious 
liberty  among  the  Mohammedan  public  as  yet,  all  applications  were  in 
vain,  and  the  saddest  thing  in  the  whole  trouble  was  the  early  and  un- 
expected death  of  Pastor  Kitzle,  a  young  and  learned  minister  of  the 
Gospel,  who  found  his  grave  in  a  country  where  he  was  not  allowed  to 
live  and  labor  for  Christ  and  the  salvation  of  souls.  His  companion, 
Dr.  Zerweek,  returned  to  Germany. 

There  is  another  grand  work  which  needs  our  attention,  the  work 
which  has  been  accomplished  by  Pastor  Peria  Yohannan,  a  native  of 
Persia  and  a  graduate  of  Hermansburg,  Germany,  and  who  received  his 
support  from  there.  The  pastor's  work  has  been  largely  in  Wazeriwa 
and  the  neighboring  villages.  Much  has  been  done  by  his  effort  in  teach- 
ing, preaching  and  spreading  God's  word.  The  simplicity  of  his  living 
and  the  manner  of  conducting  his  work  has  much  to  do  with  his  success. 

PRINTING  PRESS. 

For  the  purpose  of  more  effectively  propagating  the  mission  in 
Persia,  already  begun  by  means  of  establishing  a  number  of  Christian 
schools,  distributing  Bibles  and  other  Christian  literature,  etc.,  we  are  in 
sore  need  of  a  printing  press  of  moderate  capacity.  It  would  by  this 
be  brought  within  our  reach  to  furnish  a  sufficient  quantity  of  Bibles, 
whole  or  in  part,  catechisms,  tracts,  etc.,  to  cover  all  parts  of  Persia. 
Kurdistan  and  the  Caucasus,  which  could  scarcely  be  made  possible 
so  long  as  books,  etc.,  must  be  bought  from  dealers.  My  brother. 
Abraham  Adams,  having  spent  some  time  in  this  country  for  the  par- 
ticular purpose  of  learning  the  printers'  trade,  has  now  returned  to 
Persia  ready  to  take  this  branch  of  our  mission  work.  Allow  me,  there- 
fore, to  present  to  you  an  appeal  in  behalf  of  our  work,  and  most  especi- 
ally this  part  of  it,  the  purchase  of  a  small  printing  press. 

Considering  this  appeal,  look  not  at  yourself,  and  your  wants  and 
needs,  but  at  Christ,  with  all  His  riches  and  wealth.  He  has  made 
many  promises  which  He  can  and  will  fulfill.  Of  course,  lie  can  and 
will  help  our  work  along,  in  spite  of  any  or  many  person's  ill  will,  as 
it  has  been  begun  and  is  propagated  in  His  name;  but  is  it  not  a  dear 
privilcge  of  yours,  who  call  yourself  after  His  name,  to  be  permitted 
to  aid  in  maintaining  and  furthering  it?    Christ  wants  the  Gospel  spread 


347 


348 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


and  His  kingdom  extended  on  earth  by  Christians,  for  to  His  disciples 
He  has  given  the  command  to  go  forth  and  teach  all  nations.  And  do 
you  not  remember  that  your  dear  Lord  and  Master  has  promised  a  re- 
ward for  all  that  you  do  in  His  name,  even  to  handing  a  draught  of  cold 
water  to  the  thirsty?  What  a  blessed  sensation  it  will  create  in  every 
giver  to  read  or  to  learn  that  the  mission  in  Persia  is  progressing  finely, 
and  that  it  had  been  brought  about  to  a  great  extent  by  the  gifts  of  those 
Christians,  who  made  it  possible  by  buying  a  printing  press,  by  means  of 
which  the  Gospel  was  made  to  penetrate  places  heretofore  considered 
unpenetrable. 

But  you  are  too  poor  to  give  anything?  It  is  often  the  case,  that 
dear  Christians  refrain  from  giving  for  a  certain  purpose  because  they 
think  they  cannot  give  enough.    This  is  a  sad  mistake. 

The  mite  you  give  helps  the  cause  along  and  is  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Lord,  who  can  easily  make  much  of  little,  a  means  perhaps,  to  do  great 
good,  which,  should  you  be  able  to  perceive  it,  would  astonish  you  to  the 
utmost.  But  you  cannot  give  anything?  Yet  you  can  aid  our  work  if 
you  will.  You  are  a  Christian  ?  If  so,  you  cannot  help  to  pray.  When 
you  pray,  think  of  the  poor  Mohammedans,  Kurds,  Devil-Worshipers 
and  Fire-Worshipers  in  Persia ;  think  of  the  poor  Nestorians,  who  con- 
sider themselves  Christians  and  yet  do  not  know  their  Lord  and  Savior 
Jesus.  This  sad  affair  lay  before  Him  in  your  prayer  and  ask  Him, 
fervently,  to  help  the  missions  in  Persia  along.  When  you  say  Amen, 
He  will  also  say,  Amen,  yea,  so  shall  it  be.  I  thus  leave  this  appeal  to 
your  prayerful  consideration,  trusting  that  you  will  not  shrink  from  doing 
something  for  this  cause. 

All  things  come  of  thee,  and  of  thine  own  have  we  given  thee  (i 
Chron.  xxiv,  14). 

Bring  ye  all  the  tithes  into  the  storehouse,  that  there  may  be  meat 
in  mine  house  and  prove  me  now  herewith,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts.  If 
I  will  not  open  you  the  windows  of  heaven,  and  pour  you  out  a  blessing, 
that  there  shall  not  be  room  enough  to  receive  it  (Mai.  iii,  10). 

Charge  them  that  are  rich  in  this  world  *  *  *  that  they  do 
good,  that  they  be  rich  in  good  works,  ready  to  distribute,  willing  to 
communicate  (1  Tim.  vi,  17,  18).  Do  good  unto  all  men,  especially  unto 
them  who  are  of  the  household  of  faith  (Gal.  vi.  10). 

Every  man  according  as  he  purposeth  in  his  heart,  so  let  him  give ; 
not  grudgingly,  or  of  necessity  (2  Cor.  ix,  7). 

Freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give  (Matt,  x,  8). 

God  loveth  a  cheerful  giver  (2  Cor.  ix,  7). 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


249 


Honor  the  Lord  with  thy  substance,  and  with  the  first  fruits  of 
thine  increase  (Prov.  iii,  9). 

If  there  be  first  a  willing  mind,  it  is  accepted  according  to  that  a 
man  hath,  and  not  according  to  that  he  hath  not  (2  Cor.  viii,  12). 

Jesus  said,  it  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive  (Acts  xx.  35). 

Knowing  that  whatsoever  good  thing  any  man  doeth,  the  same  shall 
he  receive  of  the  Lord,  whether  he  be  bond  or  free  (Eph.  vi.  8). 

Lay  not  up  for  yourself  treasures  upon  earth,  where  moth  and  rust 
doth  corrupt,  and  where  thieves  break  through  and  steal ;  but  lay  up 
for  yourselves  treasures  in  heaven,  where  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth 
corrupt,  and  where  thieves  do  not  break  through  nor  steal  (Matt,  vi, 
19-20). 

My  little  children,  let  me  not  love  in  word,  neither  in  tongue,  but  in 
deed  and  in  truth  (1  John  iii,  18). 

Now  concerning  the  collection  for  the  saints  *  *  *  upon  the 
first  day  of  the  week  let  every  one  lay  by  him  in  store  as  God  hath 
prospered  him  (1  Cor.  xvi,  1,  2). 

Of  all  that  thou  shalt  give  me,  I  will  surely  give  the  tenth  to  thee 
(Gen.  28 :22). 

Provide  yourself  bags  which  wax  not  old,  a  treasure  in  the  heavens 
that  faileth  not,  where  no  thief  approacheth,  neither  moth  corrupteth 
(Luke  12:33). 

Quench  not  the  spirit  (1  Thess.  5  :ig). 

Render  unto  God  the  things  that  are  God's  (Matt.  22:21). 

See  that  ye  abound  in  this  grace  also  (2  Cor.  8  \2). 

The  silver  is  mine  and  the  gold  is  mine,  said  the  Lord  of  hosts 
(Haggai  2:8). 

Urito  whomsoever  much  is  given ;  of  him  shall  much  be  required 
(Luke  12:48). 

Vow  and  pray  unto  the  Lord  your  God  (Psa.  76:11). 

Whoso  hath  this  world's  goods,  and  seeth  his  brother  have  need, 
and  shutteth  up  his  bowels  of  compassion  from  him,  how  dwelleth  the 
love  of  God  in  him  (1  John  3:17). 

Except  your  righteousness  shall  exceed  the  righteousness  of  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees  ye  shall  in  no  case  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
(Matt.  5  :2o). 

Ye  know  the  grace  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (2  Cor.  8:9). 
Zion  that  bringeth  good  tidings  (Isa.  11 19). 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


BIBLE  RULES  FOR  GIVING. 

It  is  more  blessed  to  give  than  to  receive  (Acts  20:35). 

God  loveth  a  cheerful  giver  (2  Cor.  9:7). 

Freely  ye  have  received;  freely  give  (Matt.  10:8). 

Thou  shalt  give  unto  the  Lord  thy  God  according  as  the  Lord  thy 
God  hath  blessed  thee  (Deut.  16:10). 

Of  all  that  thou  shalt  give  me,  I  will  surely  give  the  tenth  unto 
thee  (Gen.  25  :22). 

If  there  be  first  a  willing  mind,  it  is  accepted  according  to  that  a 
man  hath,  and  not  according  to  that  he  hath  not  (2  Cor.  8:12). 

Honor  the  Lord  with  thy  substance,  and  with  the  first  fruits  of  thine 
increase  (Prov.  3  :<)). 

So  shall  thy  barns  be  filled  with  plenty,  and  thy  presses  shall  burst 
out  with  new  wine  (Prov.  3  :io). 

He  that  hath  pity  upon  the  poor  lendeth  unto  the  Lord  ;  and  that 
which  he  hath  given  will  he  pay  him  again  (  Prov.  19:17). 

Every  man  according  as  he  purposeth  in  his  heart ;  so  let  him 
give ;  not  grudgingly  or  of  necessity ;  for  God  loveth  a  cheerful  giver 
(2  Cor.  9  7). 

Of  every  man  that  giveth  it  willingly,  with  his  heart,  ye  shall  take 
my  offering  (Ex.  25  :2). 

Blessed  is  he  that  considereth  the  poor,  the  Lord  will  deliver  him 
in  time  of  trouble  (Psa.  41  :i). 

Give  and  it  shall  be  given  unto  you;  good  measure,  pressed  down, 
and  shaken  together,  and  running  over,  shall  men  give  into  your  bosom. 
For  with  the  same  measure  that  ye  mete  withal  it  shall  be  measured  to 
you  again  (Luke  6:38). 

Thou  shalt  open  thy  band  wide  unto  thy  brother,  to  thy  poor,  and 
to  thy  needy  in  thy  land  (Deut.  15:11). 

The  first  of  the  first  fruits  of  thy  land  thou  shalt  bring  into  the  house 
of  the  Lord  thy  God  (Ex.  23:19). 

Gifts  towards  the  purchasing  of  a  printing  press  or  towards  the 
benefit  of  the  Persian  mission  in  general,  please  send  to 

REV.  ISAAC  ADAMS,  M.  D., 

Oroomiah,  Persia, 
via  Berlin  and  Odessa, 

Or  No.  124  Lagrave  St., 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  U.  S.  A. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


251 


MOHAMMED    AND  MOHAMMEDANISM. 

The  mode  of  life  of  the  Arabs  is  of  three  kinds :  Either  they  are 
nomadic  (Bedowin),  obtaining  their  livelihood  from  the  rearing  of  cam- 
els, horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  pitching  their  tents  within  certain  limits, 
where  water  and  pasturage  are  most  abundant,  or  they  are  engaged  in 
the  transport  of  merchandise  along  the  trading  routes  through  the  desert, 
in  search  of  which  employment  they  travel  over  the  country  with  their 
camels,  or  they  are  sedentary,  dwelling  in  towns  either  inland  or  on  the 
seaboard,  and  engage  in  commerce  with  the  interior  or  with  the  ports 
on  the  coast,  on  the  opposite  shores  of  Africa  and  Persia,  or  with  India. 
In  ancient  times  commercial  intercourse  was  confined  almost  exclusively 
to  the  land,  for  in  those  days  the  trader  trusted  to  the  treacherous  ocean 
as  little  as  possible;  and  the  spices  and  precious  wares  of  Arabia  and 
India  were  conveyed  to  the  northern  marts  on  the  "ship  of  the  desert" 
by  settled  routes,  the  halting  places  being  fixed  at  regular  intervals, 
where  shade,  water  and  provender  were  to  be  obtained.  Here  the  weary 
traveler  and  his  more  wearied  beasts  of  burden  could  rest  and  refresh 
themselves. 

The  western  caravan  route  was  in  use  in  Mahomet's  time,  and  his 
great  grandfather  Hashim,  died  at  Gaza  when  on  a  mercantile  expedition 
to  Syria.  Eventually  the  growing  skill  in  navigation  during  Roman 
times  annihilated  the  caravan  trade,  and  substituted  the  sea  route.  The 
holy  city  of  Mecca  felt  the  loss  of  this  inland  traffic,  but  in  its  shrine — 
the  Kaaba — universally  recognized  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage  throughout 
the  peninsula,  it  possessed  an  element  of  life  unknown  at  Petra ;  and 
with  the  rise  and  progress  of  Islam  continued  to  flourish,  and  still  thrives 
on  the  stream  of  pilgrims  who  visit  it. 

As  the  reputed  ancestor  of  the  prophet  of  Mecca,  the  descendants 
of  Ishmael  deserve  particular  notice.  Few  can  read  without  emotion 
the  story  of  the  expulsion  of  Hagar  and  her  son  Ishmael  (born  B.  C, 
1910) :  how  they  wandered  in  the  wilderness  of  Beersheba  solitary  and  n? 
exile;  how  when  the  water  in  her  bottle  was  spent,  she  cast  the  child 
under  one  of  the  shrubs  of  the  desert,  lest  she  should  see  him  die ;  and 
yet,  how,  from  this  the  depths  of  her  anguish,  God's  providence  was 
fulfilled ;  how  her  eyes  were  opened  and  she  saw  the  well  of  water ;  and 
how  that  son  for  whom  the  aged  Patriarch  had  besought  the  Almighty 
(before  the  birth  of  the  chosen  seed),  "that  he  might  dwell  before  Him," 
was  blessed  exceedingly,  and  became  a  great  nation,  his  children  being 
"by  their  towns  and  by  their  castles  twelve  princes  according  to  their 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


nations."  (Gen.  xvii :  18-20  and  xxv:i2-i8.)  The  synonymous  use  of  the 
terms  "Midianites"  and  "Ishmaelites"  serves  to  fix  the  situation  of  the 
country  inhabited  by  the  latter  (Gen.  xxxvii  :28) ;  and  St.  Paul  in  speak- 
ing of  the  old  and  new  covenants  expressly  states  that  Mount  Sinai 
"which  gendereth  to  bondage,  which  is  Agar.  For  this  Agar  is  Mount 
Sinai  in  Arabia."   (Gal.  iv:24,  25.) 

The  tradition  of  the  Arabs  themselves  represents  Kedar  to  have 
settled  in  the  Hejaz,  and  from  this  patriarch  the  family  of  the  Coreish, 
the  guardians  of  the  Kaaba,  always  boasted  their  descent.  Though 
traces  of  the  remaining  sons  of  Ishmael  are  to  be  found,  it  may  generally 
be  said  that  they  either  mingled  with  the  other  tribes  or  penetrating 
the  peninsula  (south)  have  escaped  observation. 

In  addition  to  the  immigrants  whom  we  have  now  considered  and 
who  "a  mingled  people"  (Jer.  xxv:2/|.)  formed  the  permanent  inhabitants 
of  Arabia,  there  were  in  later  times  large  colonies  and  tribes  of  Jews 
scattered  throughout  the  peninsula.  They  are  found  holding  lands  and 
castles,  and  occupying  important  positions  in  the  country,  especially 
about  Medina,  in  which  and  in  its  vicinity  numerous  powerful  tribes  of 
them  were  settled.  Kheibar  was  one  of  their  strongholds.  In  the  eighth 
year  of  the  Hejiza  the  Jews  of  this  place  were  attacked  by  Mahomet, 
their  lands  and  fortresses  fell  into  his  hands  and  their  chief  Kinana  tor- 
tured to  death.  Many  of  their  numbers  perished,  and  those  who  re- 
mained were  exterminated  in  the  caliphate  of  Omar.  Two  of  Mahomet's 
wives  were  of  this  religion,  Safia,  widow  of  the  murdered  Kinana,  and 
Rihana. 

The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus  (A.  D.  70)  probably  scattered 
many  Christians  throughout  Arabia,  in  nearly  all  quarters  of  which  they 
would  be  likely  to  meet  with  sympathizers  with  their  own  faith.  The 
Christian  religion  had  gradually  and  partially  penetrated  into  Arabia, 
and  gained  scattered  converts,  though  it  never  succeeded  in  taking  a 
permanent  hold  there,  or  in  superseding  the  existing  idolatry. 

Still,  Christianity  was  not  unrepresented  in  the  peninsula.  In  the 
fourth  century  Petra  was  the  residence  of  a  Metropolitan,  whose  diocese 
embraced  the  ancient  Idumaea  and  Wabathea ;  and  several  Christian 
bishoprics  were  established  in  Arabia  subject  to  him.  Abd-Kelal  (A.  D. 
275)  Iiimyarite,  king  of  Yemen,  was  a  Christian.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  converted  by  a  Christian  stranger,  who  in  consequence  of  the  king's 
defection  was  murdered.  This  is  the  first  intimation  of  Christianity  in 
Yemen.  During  the  reign  of  Maithad  (A.  D.  330),  son  of  Abd-Kelal, 
the  Emperor  Constantinus  sent  a  Christian  embassy  to  the  court  of  the 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


253 


Himyarite  monarch,  who  is  called  "Prince  of  the  Sabaens  and  Home- 
rites,"  and  certain  privileges  were  gained  from  the  tolerant  king  for  the 
professors  of  the  Christian  faith  visiting  or  residing  in  Yemen.  Three 
churches  were  built  at  Izafar,  the  royal  residence,  at  Aden,  and  on  the 
Persian  gulf.  No  important  event  followed  this  embassy,  but  the  knowl- 
edge is  gained  thereby  that,  the  inhabitants  of  Yemen  at  the  same  time 
were  partly  Jewish  and  partly  Pagan.  The  latter  practiced  circumcision 
and  sacrificed  to  the  sun  and  moon  and  to  other  divinities. 

The  princes  of  Axum,  in  Abyssinia,  a  powerful  and  extensive  state, 
were  Christians  of  the  Nestorian  sect.  The  persecutions  practiced  in 
turn  by  differing  Christian  sects  contributed  to  scatter  believers  through- 
out the  East,  and  drove  numbers  into  Arabia.  The  king,  Abrahah,  with  a 
large  army,  attacked  Mecca  in  570  A.  D.,  but  owing  to  a  sudden  out- 
break of  smallpox  in  his  army  he  was  compelled  to  raise  his  siege,  and 
the  Meccans  might  be  pardoned  for  attributing  the  preservation  of  their 
city  to  the  direct  interposition  of  their  tribal  gods.  Christianity  never 
had  another  opportunity  of  winning  Arabia  for  in  this  very  year  of 
Abrahah's  defeat  there  was  born  in  the  city  of  Mecca  the  founder  of  a 
new  religion.  Genealogical  table  of  the  family  of  Coreish  and  the  ances- 
tors of  Mohammed. 

Abraham  (b.  1996,  d.  1822  B.  C),  the  father  by  Hagar  of  Ishmael 
(b.  1910),  married  a  daughter  of  Modadh,  Jorhamite,  chief  of  Mecca, 
and  had  children.  From  them  descended  Adrian  (b.  B.  C.  130),  the 
father  of  Maadd;  from  whom,  in  the  seventh  generation  descended 
Nadhr  (b.  A.  D.  134),  the  father  of  Malik,  the  father  of  Fihr  Coreish 
(b.  A.  D.  200). 

The  early  religion  of  the  Arabs  was  a  kind  of  Sabeanism  and  chiefly 
consisted  in  worshiping  the  fixed  stars  and  planets  and  the  angels  and 
their  images,  which  they  honored  as  inferior  deities,  and  whose  inter- 
cession they  begged  as  their  mediators  with  God."  This  worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  is  alluded  to  in  the  book  of  Job  (xxxviii  :3i-33),  and  the 
names  of  certain  constellations  which  were  adored  are  given. 

About  the  Kaaba  was  the  famous  idol  Hobal,  the  tutelary  deity  of 
Mecca,  supposed  to  have  the  power  of  granting  rain,  surrounded  by  360 
of  smaller  size,  representing  the  saints  and  divinities,  which  could  be 
invoked  on  each  day  of  the  year.  Of  the  form  of  adoration  paid  to  these 
idols  little  is  known,  but  by  analogy  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  occasion 
of  their  pilgrimage  would  be  connected  with  their  domestic  or  family 
history,  and  chiefly  the  absorbing  desire  for  offspring.  There  is  a  record 
of  embassy  sent  to  the  Kaaba  to  implore  for  rain  in  a  time  of  draught. 


254 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Solemn  engagements  were  ratified  before  the  celebrated  "Black  Stone."'  f 
Kaaba.   Arab  tradition  has  surrounded  this  shrine  with  a  cloud  of  v 
legendary  story,  and  attributed  its  first  building  to  Adam  and  Eve,  who,  p 
after  their  expulsion  from  Paradise  and  devious  wanderings,  met  at 
length  in  penitence  and  forgiveness  near  Mecca,  and  were  allowed  to  t 
build  a  temple  in  imitation  of  that  in  which  they  had  offered  their  pure  i 
worship  in  the  Garden  of  Eden.    Destroyed  by  the  Flood,  an  angel  re- 
vealed its  site  to  the  forlorn  Hagar  and  Ishmael  perishing  with  thirst  in 
the  desert,  and  there,  to  their  needs  bubbled  forth  the  waters  of  the  well 
Zem  Zem.  The  fountain  attracts  a  neighboring  tribe  of  Amalekites,  who 
build  riear  its  waters  the  town  of  Mecca,  and  with  them  the  youthful 
Ishmael  and  his  mother  find  protection  and  rest.    Here  Ishmael  was 
visited  by  his  father  Abraham,  who,  in  obedience  to  Divine  command, 
is  about  to  offer  him  up  on  a  neighboring  hill,  but  some  vicarious  sac- 
rifice is  accepted,  and  they  set  about  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  Kaaba 
on  its  ancient  site.    To  assist  in  this  work  the  angel  Gabriel  brought 
them  one  of  the  stones  of  Paradise — the  celebrated  Black  Stone— which 
rose  and  fell  as  the  divinely  aided  masons  progressed  with  the  work. 
This  "Heavenly  Stone"  was  on  completion  of  the  work,  inserted  in  an 
outer  corner  of  the  wall  of  the  Kaaba  and  after  varying  fortunes  is  still 
devoutly  kissed  or  touched  on  each  of  the  seven  circuits  round  the 
Temple.   At  first  it  was  bright  and  translucent,  but  its  present  color  is 
supposed  to  reflect,  but,  too  truly,  the  salutations  of  sinful  mortals. 

On  the  death  of  Holeil,  Cussai  set  about,  with  the  support  of  the 
other  Coreish  families,  to  assert  and  defend  the  right  of  his  family  to 
the  guardianship  of  the  Kaaba  and  the  government  of  Mecca.  Together 
with  the  guardianship  of  the  temple,  he  possessed  himself  of  the  chief 
religious  dignities  connected  with  the  sacerdotal  office.  From  the  Bern" 
Safa  he  obtained  the  "Ijaza"  or  the  right  of  dismissing  the  assembled 
Arab  tribes  from  Mina  after  the  ceremonies  of  the  Greater  Pilgrimage; 
and  after  much  carnage  wrested  from  the  Beni  Khozaa  the  supremacy 
over  the  Hejaz.  This  took  place  about  440  A.  D.  Cussai  gathered  to- 
gether and  settled  at  Mecca  many  scattered  families  of  the  Coreish,  en- 
larged the  town,  built  near  the  Kaaba  the  "Council  House,"  where  po- 
litical questions  were  discussed  and  social  ceremonies  solemnized,  and 
whence  the  yearly  caravans  set  forth ;  and  finally  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing himself  Sheikh  of  Mecca  and  Governor  of  the  country.  The  digni- 
ties of  which  he  possessed  himself  were  five  in  number,  viz. :  (1)  "The 
Hyaba,"  which  gave  him  the  keys  and  control  of  the  Kaaba.  (2)  "The 
Sicaya,"  and  the  "Rifada,"  or  the  prerogatives  of  providing  drink  and 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


255 


food  for  the  pilgrims.  (3)  "The  Kiyada,"  the  command  of  the  troops  in 
war.  (4)  'The  Liwa,"  the  right  of  affixing  the  banner  to  the  staff  and 
presenting  it  to  the  standard  bearer.  (5)  "The  Dar-ul-Nadwa,"  the  pres- 
idency of  the  Hall  of  Council.  "The  religious  observances  customary  at 
the  time  of  Cussai  were  those  prevailing  when  Mohammed  arose,  and  the 
idols  accepted,  are  there  practiced  with  slight  modifications  to  this  day. 
The  center  of  veneration  was  the  Kaaba,  to  visit  which,  to  kiss  the 
Black  Stone,  and  to  make  the  seven  circuits,  was  at  all  times  regarded 
as  a  holy  privilege  (Muir,  I,  ccv). 

Next  was  the  Lesser  Pilgrimage  (Hajj-al  Asghar)  which,  in  addition 
to  the  above,  included  the  right  of  running  quickly  to  and  fro  seven 
times  between  the  hills  of  Safa  and  Marwa  close  to  the  Kaaba.  This 
ceremony  had  especial  merit  in  the  holy  month  Rajab.  Lastly,  the 
Greater  Pilgrimage  (Hajj-al  Alsbar),  involving  all  the  above  and  the  ad- 
ditional rite  of  pilgrimage  to  Arafat — an  eminence  of  granite  rocks,  ten 
or  twelve  miles  east  of  Mecca.  This  can  be  performed  only  in  the  holy 
month  "Dzul  Hijja."  On  the  8th  the  pilgrims  start  from  Mecca,  spend 
the  9th  at  Arafat,  and  on  the  same  evening  hurry  back  to  a  spot  called 
Mosdalifa.  Two  or  three  succeeding  days  are  spent  at  Mina,  and  the 
pilgrimage  is  concluded  with  the  sacrifice  of  a  victim. 

The  country  around  Mecca  to  a  distance  of  several  miles  was  called 
sacred  (Haram)  and  during  four  months  of  the  year,  by  general  con- 
sent, wars  and  hostilities  were  laid  aside,  so  that  the  pilgrims  could 
travel  unmolested  from  distant  parts,  and  assuming  the  sacred  garb 
(Ihram)  perform  the  accustomed  rites  in  peace  and  security. 

But  the  question  arises  how  the  worship  at  Mecca  came  to  be  what 
it  was  at  the  time  of  Mohammed's  birth.  The  worship  was  made  up  of 
two  totally  different  elements,  viz.,  pure  idolatry,  and  in  addition  rites 
and  observances  which,  by  tradition,  were  associated  with  the  story  of 
living  characters  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  reality  of  that  associa- 
tion riveted  and  certified  by  the  names  of  spots  in  the  neighborhood 
which  could  be  seen  and  visited,  and  which  were  intimately  connected 
with  the  ceremonies  which  were  performed. 

(A.  D.  570)  Abd-al-Mut-talib  had  betrothed  his  son  Abdallah  to  a 
maiden  of  the  house  of  Coreish,  Amina,  the  daughter  of  Wahb,  the  son 
of  Abd-Menaf,  the  son  of  Zolna,  a  brother  of  the  famous  Cussai,  who, 
more  than  a  hundred  years  before,  had  consolidated  the  fortunes  of  their 
house.  Abdallah  was  the  best  beloved  son  of  his  father,  a  child  of  bene- 
diction, who  being  once  in  fulfillment  of  a  vow  devoted  to  death,  like  his 
storied  ancestor,  Ishmael,  on  the  heights  of  Arafat,  had,  at  the  eleventh 


256 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


hour,  been  saved  from  the  sacrificial  fire  and  given  again  to  life.  For 
Abd-al-Mu-Talib  had  promised,  if  the  Almighty  would  give  him  ten 
sons,  that  one  of  them  should  be  devoted ;  and  it  was  only  after  the 
divining  arrows  had  ten  times  been  cast  that  the  slaughter  of  one  hun- 
dred camels  before  the  idol  God  was  permitted  to  redeem  the  victim 
and  absolve  the  parent  from  his  rash  vow. 

BIRTH  OF  MOHAMMED  AND  LIFE  TO  FORTIETH  YEAR. 

Brief  was  the  wedded  life  of  Abdallah  and  Amina.  Shortly  after 
the  marriage  her  husband  set  out  with  the  yearly  caravan  for  Gaza,  in 
South  Syria,  leaving  pregnant  the  young  wife  who  was  destined  to  see 
him  no  more.  It  was  their  first  and  last  parting,  for  on  the  return  jour- 
ney, Abdallah  sickened  and,  being  left  with  his  grand  maternal  relatives 
at  Medina,  died  and  was  buried  there.  For  the  support  of  his  widow 
he  left  behind  him  no  richer  legacy  than  four  camels,  a  flock  of  goats, 
and  a  slave  girl  named  Baraka. 

Under  the  rocks  of  the  Abu-Cobeis,  which  rise  eastward  of  Mecca, 
over  the  narrow  valley,  stood  the  house  of  Amina,  the  birthplace  of  her 
only  son.  At  the  time  of  the  infant's  birth,  the  aged  Abd-al-Mut-talib 
was  worshiping  in  the  Kaaba,  and,  taking  the  child  to  the  sacred  shrine, 
like  Simeon  of  old,  he  lifted  him  up  in  his  arms  and  blessed  God  and  gave 
thanks,  saying  that  he  was  to  be  called  "Mohammed,"  a  name  in  not 
unfamiliar  use  before  and  at  the  time.  But  Amina  had  not  long  the 
comfort  of  her  son's  presence.  It  was  then  customary  for  the  infants 
to  be  nurtured  among  the  outlying  Bedowin  tribes.  Moreover,  grief  is 
said  to  have  dried  up  the  fountain  of  her  breast,  and  she  was  thus  for 
a  double  reason,  constrained  to  part  with  her  son,  who,  amidst  the  val- 
leys and  hills  which  range  southward  of  Tayif,  with  his  nurse  Halima, 
breathed  the  pure  air  of  the  desert.  Here,  too,  he  learned  the  purer 
speech  of  Arabia  among  the  Beni-Saad,  to  which  tribe  his  foster  mother 
belonged,  and  for  which  he  afterwards  entertained  the  greatest  affection 
and  gratitude. 

At  the  end  of  two  years  the  infant  was  weaned  and  sent  to  visit  his 
mother,  but  the  latter,  whilst  charmed  at  his  healthy  looks  and  dreading 
the  unwholesome  air  of  Mecca,  sent  him  back  to  his  mountain  home 
with  his  nurse,  who  had  so  faithfully  watched  over  him.  When  ap- 
proaching his  fifth  year  he  appears  to  have  become  subject  to  certain 
epileptic  fits  which  alarmed  his  foster  parents,  as  such  attacks  were  at- 
tributed to  the  influence  of  evil  spirits,  and  made  them  resolve  to  rid 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


257 


themselves  of  their  charge.  So  he  was  again  taken  to  his  mother,  and 
the  reason  of  the  visit  explained  to  her,  and  though  persuaded  to  con- 
tinue their  guardianship  for  sometime  longer,  they  finally  restored  him 
to  Amina  when  he  had  reached  his  fifth  year. 

In  his  sixth  year  (A.  D.  575)  he  paid  a  visit  to  Medina.  There  he 
saw  the  tomb  of  his  father,  and  found  youthful  relatives  of  a  companion- 
able age.  At  Abwa,  a  spot  half  way  from  Medina  to  his  native  place,  he 
had  the  misfortune  to  lose  his  sole  remaining  parent. 

The  faithful  slave  Baraka  escorted  him  back  to  Mecca,  and  there  in 
the  house  of  his  grandfather,  the  little  orphan  found  for  two  years  a 
happy  home ;  and  when  Abd-al-Mut-talib  died  (A.  D.  578)  he  consigned 
to  his  son  Abu-Talib  the  charge  of  the  boy.  In  the  family  of  his  uncle 
he  was  treated  as  a  son,  and  faithfully,  as  we  shall  see,  did  the  generous 
Abu-Talib,  in  adversity,  and  through  evil  and  good  report,  fulfill  the 
sacred  trust  imposed  upon  him. 

Living  thus  in  the  house  of  his  grandfather  and  uncle  from  his  sixth 
year,  the  youthful  mind  of  Mohammed  cannot  but  have  imbibed  lasting 
and  important  impressions,  from  the  domestic  and  social  circumstances 
by  which,  at  his  susceptible  age,  he  was  surrounded.  Abd-al-Mut-talib 
was  the  chief  of  Mecca,  and  fulfilled,  as  his  father  had  done  before  him, 
the  most  important  of  the  sacerdotal  offices  with  the  national  worship. 
To  him  for  food  and  help  resorted  the  devout  pilgrim  from  his  distant 
home,  and  in  his  hands  was  the  custody  of  the  sacred  well  Zem  Zem. 
We  read,  too,  that  with  the  other  chiefs  of  his  family  in  Mecca  he  was 
wont  to  spend  some  time  beneath  the  shadow  of  the  Kaaba,  and  that 
the  youthful  Mohammed  was  there  his  constant  companion. 

The  multitude  of  camels  bearing  spices,  the  merchants  of  Aden  and 
Hadhramaut,  with  their  precious  freights — the  choice  products  of  Yemen 
and  of  India — the  bustle  and  tumult  of  the  crowded  streets,  would  ex- 
cite the  imagination  with  visions  of  those  distant  regions  whence  all  the 
riches  came,  and  arouse  a  desire  to  visit  them.  From  this  influence  the 
youthful  Mohammed  did  not  escape.  At  his  earnest  entreaty  his  guard- 
ian Abu-Talib  (who  like  most  of  the  chiefs  of  his  house  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile adventures),  permitted  the  youth,  then  in  his  twelfth  year,  to 
accompany  him  on  the  northward  journey.  On  this,  and  on  subse- 
quent trading  expeditions,  indelible  impressions  must  have  been  made 
upon  his  youthful  mind.  Now  the  daily  march,  the  nightly  halt,  new 
scenes,  the  campfires,  around  which  wild  tales  and  legions  of  spectral 
beings  haunting  each  vale  and  hill,  and  of  ancient  races  swept  away  in 


258 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ages  past,  would  naturally  imprint  themselves  deeply  on  the  imagination 
of  the  melancholy  child. 

During  these  jonrneys  Mohammed  must  without  doubt  have  come 
in  contact  with  numerous  Christians  who,  as  we  have  before  stated,  were 
scattered  over  the  region  he  visited ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  he 
may  frequently  have  witnessed  the  ceremonies  of  their  worship.  The 
Christian  Church  in  the  East  had  been  for  a  long  time  convulsed  by 
theological  controversies.  Bitter  disputes  for  centuries  over  the  great 
mysteries  of  the  faith  had  ended  in  the  production  of  a  number  of  sects. 
There  were  the  Arians  who  denied  the  essential  quality  of  the  three  per- 
sons of  the  God-head,  the  Sabellians,  who  reduced  these  persons  to  three 
relations,  and  the  Eutychians,  who  believed  in  the  fusion  of  the  God- 
head and  the  manhood  of  Christ  into  one  nature.  There  were  the 
Jacobites,  adherents  of  the  Monophysite  heresy,  the  Nazaraeans,  and 
the  Ebionites,  numerous  in  Arabia,  the  Marianites,  who  made  the  Virgin 
Mother  the  third  person  in  the  Trinity ;  the  Collyridians,  who  made 
Mary  their  God,  and  worshiped  her  as  such,  and  "other  sects  there 
were,  of  many  denominations,  within  the  borders  of  Arabia,  which  took 
refuge  there  from  the  proscription  of  the  imperial  edicts"  (Sale,  p.  35). 
We  learn,  too,  that  the  worship  of  saints  and  images  had  there  arrived 
at  a  very  high  pitch  and  that  many  other  superstitions  largely  pre- 
vailed. 

In  Syria,  Mohammed  would  see  the  Christian  religion  the  ruling 
national  faith,  in  full  vigor,  with  its  scenic  ritual,  its  crosses,  pictures, 
vestments,  processions  and  regularly  recurring  services;  and  these  ob- 
servances he  would,  doubtless,  compare  with  that  gross  idolatry,  in  the 
practice  of  which  lie  had  grown  up  to  years  of  manhood.  Still,  those 
who  called  themselves  by  the  name  of  the  Savior  were  numerous  in  Ara- 
bia, in  Syria,  at  Bostra,  and  at  Hira,  and  though  he  must  have  had  full 
and  ample  opportunity  of  learning  the  truth  of  the  things  which  they 
believed,  nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the  gross  ignorance  of  some 
of  the  leading  features  of  Christianity,  which  notwithstanding  all  the 
means  of  information  which,  at  any  rate  during  his  residence  at  Medina, 
he  possessed,  is  displayed  by  Mohammed.  In  the  account  of  his  first 
journey,  in  his  twelfth  year,  miraculous  signs  crowd  upon  us,  and  the 
visible  protection  of  Heaven  accompanies  the  youthful  prophet.  At  one 
time  the  wings  of  his  guardian  angel  shield  him  from  the  noonday  heat ; 
at  another,  the  withered  trees  of  the  desert  arc  clothed  in  living  green, 
to  afford  shelter  to  the  chosen  of  Heaven.  At  Bostra,  a  city  lying  east- 
ward of  the  Jordan,  and  chiefly  inhabited  by  Nestorian  Christians,  where 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


259 


the  caravans  halted  the  prophetic  light,  which  shone  in  his  face,  and  the 
seal  of  prophecy  between  his  shoulders,  are  seen  and  recognized  by  a 
monk  of  a  neighboring  convent.  By  him  the  youth  is  hospitably  enter- 
tained and  instructed  in  the  true  faith  of  the  living  God ;  but  especially 
and  thus  early  is  there  sown  in  his  heart  a  deep  rooted  abhorrence  of 
that  idolatry  in  which  he  had  hitherto  been  educated.  This  Nestorian 
monk  is  variously  called  Bahira  Sergius. 

And  so  the  life  of  Mohammed  ran  on.  When  he  had  reached  his 
twenty-fifth  year,  on  the  recommendation  of  Abu  Talib,  he  entered 
the  service  of  Khadija,  a  rich  widow  of  Mecca.  She  was  of  the  house 
of  Coreish,  the  daughter  of  Khurveilid,  who  was  the  son  of  Asad,  the  son 
of  Abd-al-Ozza,  the  son  of  Cussai.  With  Musara,  her  servant,  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  widow's  merchandise ;  and  accompanying  the 
yearly  caravan  to  the  north,  by  judicious  barter  with  the  Syrian  mer- 
chants of  Bostra,  Aleppo  and  Damascus,  succeeded  in  doubling  Khadija's 
venture.  From  Man-al-Tzahran,  the  last  halting  place  on  the  return 
journey  before  Mecca,  he  was  sent  forward  to  announce  to  his  thrifty 
and  expectant  mistress  the  success  of  their  journey.  The  widow  was 
charmed  with  the  noble  features  of  the  ingenious  youth.,  and  her  heart 
was  touched  with  a  soft  and  irresistible  feeling.  The  negotiations  and 
advances  which  her  love  and  modesty  set  on  foot  soon  brought  about 
the  union  she  desired.  The  home  of  Mohammed  and  Khadija  was  a 
bright  and  happy  one,  and  their  marriage  fortunate  and  fruitful.  Two 
sons  and  four  daughters  were  its  issue.  Their  eldest  son  was  Casim,  who 
died  at  the  age  of  two  years ;  then  followed  (in  what  precise  order  is  un- 
known) four  daughters — Zeinab,  Rockeya,  Om  Kolthum,  and  Fatima, 
and  lastly  a  son,  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Abdallah,  who  died  in 
infancy. 

The  wealth  of  Khadija  raised  Mohammed  to  a  level  with  the  other 
chiefs  of  his  house  and  relieved  'him  from  the  shepherd's  crook  and  from 
his  duties  among  the  camel-drivers  of  Mecca.  The  love  of  Khadija,  who 
had  at  first  been  attracted  by  his  noble  and  pleasing  exterior,  increased 
daily  at  the  recognition  of  the  sterling  qualities  which  her  partial  heart 
was  ready  to  discover  in  the  husband  of  her  choice. 

In  all  his  troubles,  and  amid  all  his  mental  doubts  and  conflicts,  he 
had  one  tender  and  affectionate  bosom  into  which  he  could  pour  his 
griefs,  and  to  which  he  could  in  latter  years,  confide  the  story  of  the 
ecstatic  visions,  which  in  the  solitary  cave,  or  on  the  arid  uplands, 
haunted  his  day  dreams  and  his  nightly  vigils.  For  the  heart  of  Moham- 
med did  safely  trust  her,  and  Khadija  yielded  to  him  her  faith,  and 


260 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSAN. 


when  the  world  called  him  impostor  and  cheat,  she  was  the  first  to 
acknowledge  him  to  be  indeed  the  Apostle  of  God. 

From  the  knowledge  thus  gained  by  actual  intercourse  with  those 
who  had  been  instructed,  however  imperfectly  in  a  better  faith :  from 
the  general  spirit  of  inquiry  which  is  said  to  have  prevailed  at  the  time ; 
from  what  he  himself  had  seen  and  learnt  of  the  Christian  and  Jewish 
worship,  and  from  dim  traditions  of  the  purer  faith  of  their  ancestor 
Abraham,  he  gradually  became  sensible  how  much  such  pure  adoration 
was  at  variance  with  the  gross  and  degrading  idolatry  which  prevailed 
in  Arabia.  With  a  brooding  anxiety  for  something  that  would  answer 
the  secret  longings  of  his  scul  he  began  to  withdraw  himself  from  the 
busy  scenes  of  the  city  to  the  barren  hills,  whose  desolate  solitudes  were 
congenial  to  his  meditative  and  melancholy  nature. 

We  read  that  often  with  his  faithful  wife  he  repaired  to  the  cave  of 
Hira  for  meditation  and  prayer,  and  that  his  long  and  anxious  vigils 
and  nightly  wanderings  were  followed  by  ecstacies,  and  trances,  and 
convulsive  fits  long  continued,  which  alarmed  his  wife,  but  in  which  "the 
faithful"  see  the  beginning  of  the  working  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  the 
throes  of  a  mind  burdened  with  a  revelation  more  than  human.  His 
tendency  to  epileptic  attacks,  and  his  long  vigils,  sufficiently  account 
for  these  phenomena.  To  the  faithful,  however,  they  constituted  the 
ordeal  through  which  he  had  to  pass  before  he  could  be  made  the  means 
of  revealing  the  message  of  Heaven. 

.  Luther  looked  upon  him  as  a  devil  and  the  first  born  child  of 
"Satan."  That  Mohammed  was  inspired  by  Satan  because  he  did  not  ex- 
plain what  sin  is,  and,  showeth  not  the  reason  of  human  misery.  "Wicked 
impostor,"  "dastardly  liar,"  etc.,  a  wilful  and  intentional  deceiver  from 
first  to  last,  who,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  himself  to  supreme  power 
invented  the  wicked  imposture  which  he  palmed  with  so  much  success 
on  the  world.  He  is  accused  in  prosecution  of  his  design,  of  having 
abandoned  a  licentious  course  of  life,  and  of  having  affected  that  of  an 
Eremite,  in  order  to  gain  "a  reputation  for  sanctity  before  he  set  up  for 
prophet." 

It  was  the  angel  Gabriel  who  held  in  his  hand  a  silken  cloth  covered 
with  writing  and  bid  Mohammed  read ;  but  he  replied,  that  he  could  not. 
Then  the  angel,  repeating  part  of  the  ninety-sixth  sura,  spoke  as  fol- 
lows: "Read,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  who  hath  created  all  things. 
Read,  by  the  most  beneficent  Lord,  who  taught  the  use  of  the  pen; 
who  teacheth  man  that  which  he  knoweth  not."  And  then  the  angel 
left  him,  and  the  words  were  as  though  they  were  engraved  on  his  heart. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


261 


Such  was  the  first  appearance  to  him  of  the  heavenly  messenger,  and 
the  first  intimation  of  the  Divine  will. 

After  a  sufficient  "intermission"  the  voice  returned,  and  the  angel, 
from  a  throne  between  heaven  and  earth,  thus  addressed  him :  "Oh, 
Mohammed !  thou  art  the  Apostle  of  God  and  I  am  Gabriel."  This 
intimation  strengthened  his  heart,  allayed  his  fears,  and  at  length,  per- 
suaded of  his  divine  appointment,  he  went  to  announce  the  glad  tidings 
to  Khadja. 

Zeid,  his  adopted  son,  embraces  the  faith  and  to  these  were  added 
the  names  of  two  others,  his  adopted  son  Ali  and  Abu  Bekr,  both  after- 
wards Caliphs,  and  both  reckoned  amongst  the  earliest  believers.  Ali 
was  the  son  of  Abu  Talib,  and  cousin  of  the  prophet,  but  nearly  thirty 
years  his  junior.  Abu  Talib,  however,  had  fallen  on  evil  days,  and  when 
the  burden  of  a  numerous  family  pressed  too  heavily  upon  him,  his 
former  kindness  to  Mohammed  was  gratefully  remembered,  who,  being 
then  in  affluent  circumstances,  took  upon  himself  the  charge  of  Ali, 
adopted  him  in  place  of  his  own  lost  Casim,  and  they  afterwards  felt 
towards  each  other  the  mutual  attachment  of  parent  and  child.  At  the 
time  when  Mohammed  assumed  the  prophetic  character,  Ali  was  about 
fourteen  years  of  age,  but  with  the  permission  of  Abu  Talib  grew  up  in 
the  faith  of  his  adopted  father. 

By  the  influence  of  Abu  Bekr  five  new  converts  were  added  to 
Islam ;  Saad,  a  nephew  of  Amina ;  Zobier,  a  nephew  of  Khadija ;  Talha, 
afterwards  a  valiant  warrior  of  the  faith ;  Othmanibu-Affan,  subsequently 
Caliph,  and  Abd-al-Rahman,  the  son  of  Awf,  whose  four  companions, 
on  their  first  visit  to  the  prophet,  embraced  the  new  doctrine.  Others 
were  gradually  added  to  the  little  band  of  the  faithful.  Of  these  may  be 
mentioned  Said-ibu-Zeid,  then  a  boy,  and  his  wife  Fatima,  sister  of 
Zeid-ibu-Khattab,  and  of  the  famous  Omar,  afterwards  Caliph.  In  all, 
it  may  be  assumed  that  in  the  first  three  or  four  years  a  small  group  of 
thirty  or  forty  converts  were  the  fruits  of  the  secret  preaching  and  pri- 
vate solicitation  of  the  prophet. 

And  so  believers  were  added  until  they  reached  about  fifty,  among 
whom  are  numbered  many  who  were  in  menial  or  servile  positions  at 
Mecca. 

Among  the  chief  opponents  of  Mohammed  and  his  doctrines,  were, 
as  mentioned  above,  Walid  and  Abu  Lahat,  his  uncle;  to  these  may  be 
added  Abu  Sofian,  the  son  of  Harb,  the  grandson  of  Omeya,  and  great 
grandson  of  Abd  Shams.  He  was  a  man  of  great  wealth,  and  one  of  the 
most  influential  men  of  Mecca.  Abu  Jahl,  a  Coreishite,  descended  from 


262 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Yokdha,  uncle  of  Cussai,  was  also  a  bitter  and  abusive  opponent  of  the 
new  doctrines. 

The  Koran,  or  inspired  book  of  the  Moslems,  consists  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fourteen  chapters  or  Suras  which  vary  much  in  length,  some 
containing  only  a  few  lines,  whilst  the  longest  (the  second)  has  as  many 
as  two  hundred  and  eight-six  verses.  It  is  made  of  those  revelations 
which  Mohammed  professed  from  time  to  time  to  have  received  direct 
from  God,  which  he  repeated  to  those  about  him,  and  of  which,  accord- 
ing to  strict  Mohammedan  doctrine,  every  word  is  of  divine  command.  It 
is  also  by  the  Moslems  considered  the  fountain  head  of  all  science,  of 
all  knowledge,  and  all  law.   When  made  known,  the  different  chapters, 


MOHAMMED,  THE  FOUNDER  OF  ISLAM. 


or  parts  of  chapters — for  it  was  seldom  that  an  entire  one  was  revealed 
at  once — were  by  his  followers  committed  to'  memory,  or  written  down 
on  palm  leaves,  white  stones,  pieces  of  leather,  shoulder  blades  of  the 
sheep  and  camel;  and  these  in  later  years  were  put  into  a  chest  in  the 
prophet's  house,  and  subsequently  came  into  the  keeping  of  Haphsa,  one 
of  his  wives.  Copies  of  the  Suras,  as  they  appeared,  were,  it  seems,  made 
for  the  private  devotions  of  his  followers.  No  complete  copy  of  the  sev- 
eral revelations  which  made  up  the  present  Koran,  appears  to  have  ex- 
isted during  the  lifetime  of  Mohammed  ;  but  during  the  caliphate  of  Abu 
Bekr,  his  successor,- and  at  the  suggestion  of  Omar,  a  copy  was  written 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


263 


out  by  the  prophet's  secretary,  Zeid-ibu-Thabit.  The  copy  made  by 
Zeid  was  retained  by  Omar  during  his  caliphate,  and  by  him  made  over 
to  his  successor  Othman. 

Hence  some  of  the  Mohammedans  deny  that  the  Koran  was  the 
composition  of  their  prophet,  and  assert  that  it  is  eternal  and  uncreated, 
and  of  the  essence  of  God  Himself.  Others  refuse  to  detract  from  the 
honor  of  God  by  making  anything  co-equal  with  or  not  created  by  Him, 
though  they,  too,  are  unanimous  in  their  belief  that  Mohammed  Avas 
merely  the  medium  of  conveying  God's  will  to  men,  and  that  His  words, 
therefore,  are  the  words  of  the  Almighty,  who  speaks  in  every  sentence. 
The  Unitarian  doctrine  is  asserted  in  the  112th  Sura,  which  is  as  fol- 
lows: (Title,  ''The  Declaration  of  God's  Unity.") — "In  the  name  of  the 
most  merciful  God.  Say.  God  is  one  God,  the  eternal  God ;  He  be- 
getteth  not,  neither  is  He  begotten,  and  there  is  not  anyone  like  unto 
Him."  This  chapter  is  held  in  particular  veneration  by  the  Moham- 
medans and  is  declared  by  a  tradition  of  their  prophet  to  be  equal  in  value 
to  a  third  part  of  the  whole  Koran. 

Of  the  angelic  beings  who  surround  the  throne  of  God  there  are 
four  of  the  highest  dignity  and  power :  Gabriel,  the  Angel  of  Revelation, 
who  communicated  the  Koran  to  Mohammed,  and  is  said  therein  to  have 
been  sent  by  God  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  to  promise  her  "a  Holy  Son." 
Michael,  "the  Friend  of  the  Jews,"  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  Ga- 
brial  as  one  of  those,  enmity  against  whom  involves  enmity  against  God 
Himself.  Azrael,  called  "the  Angel  of  Death,"  who  separates  men's 
souls  and  bodies,  and  with  his  assistants  either  "tears  them  asunder  with 
violence,  or  draws  them  apart  with  gentleness."  Israfil,  whose  business 
it  will  be  to  sound  the  two  trumpets  at  the  last  day. 

The  devil,  named  Eblis  in  the  Koran,  was  once  one  of  the  arch- 
angels in  heaven,  and  was  called  Azazil,  but  by  disobedience  fell,  under 
circumstances  thus  related :  "And  we  created  Adam,  and  said  to  the 
angels,  "Worship  Adam,"  and  they  all  worshiped  him  except  Eblis,  who 
refused,  and  said,  "I  am  more  excellent  than  he ;  thou  hast  created  me 
of  fire  and  hast  created  him  of  clay."  For  this  God  drove  him  down 
from  Paradise,  and,  being  respited  till  the  day  of  judgment,  his  busi- 
ness is  to  "tempt  man  to  disobedience  on  the  earth,"  but  he  has  no 
power  over  God's  servants  but  only  over  those  "who  shall  be  seduced." 
On  Friday,  the  day  of  public  assembly,  the  same  prayers  are  used,  led 
by  some  Imam  (antistes)  who  holds  office  at  the  mosque,  for  there  is 
no  order  of  men  set  apart  for  that  purpose ;  and  he  usually  reads,  in  ad- 
dition some  set  address  (Khutbah)^  or  preaches  to  those  assembled. 


264 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Rosaries,  consisting  of  ninety-nine  beads  (the  number  of  the  names 
of  Allah)  are  frequently  seen  in  the  hands  of  the  most  zealous  Moslems, 
and  are  used  to  count  the  ejaculatory  prayers :  such  as  "Praise  be  to 
God;"  "God  is  most  great,"  etc.,  which  are  directed  to  be  repeated  a 
certain  number  of  times. 

Women  are  taught  that  it  is  better  for  them  to  pray  at  home ;  they 
are  absolutely  excluded  from  some  mosques  and  are  seldom  seen  in  the 
others  at  the  ordinary  times  of  prayer.  They  join,  however,  in  the  fes- 
tival of  the  Grohanam,  particularly  on  the  tenth  day,  and  they  accompany 
their  husbands  on  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 

It  was  at  this  time  Mohammed  suffered  the  loss,  by  death,  of  two  of 
his  nearest  and  best  friends — his  wife  Khadija  (A.D.  619)  and  his  faith- 
ful uncle,  the  aged  Abu  Talib  (A.D.  620). 

At  this  critical  period,  because  he  found  it  unsafe  to  remain  in 
Mecca,  or  because  he  trusted  that  his  message  would  find  more  accept- 
ance elsewhere,  Mohammed,  accompanied  by  his  faithful  freedman,  Zeid, 
set  off  to  Tair,  a  strongly  fortified  town  inhabited  by  the  Beni  Thackif, 
situated  some  seventy  miles  to  the  east  of  Mecca. 

There  is  something  very  touching  in  the  view  of  the  solitary  wan- 
derers as  they  set  forth  in  faith  and  devotion.  On  they  toiled,  across 
sandy  wastes,  over  burning  rocks  and  barren  hills,  till  they  reached  the 
heights  of  the  Jebel  Kora,  where  gardens,  palm  trees,  vineyards  and 
"fruits  of  plenty  spread  on  every  hand,"  made  a  welcome  and  refreshing 
contrast  to  the  dreary  wilderness  through  which  they  had  passed  and 
cheered  the  visionary  seer  and  his  faithful  comrade.  And  so  they 
descended  into  the  valley  of  Tayif,  which  town  at  that  time  and  long 
after  was  one  of  the  great  strongholds  of  idolatry.  There  a  stone  image, 
called  "Al  Lat,"  usually  adorned  with  costly  vestments  and  precious 
stones,  was  an  object  of  worship  and  profound  veneration  and  was 
esteemed  to  be  one  of  the  daughters  of  God.  Here  for  ten  days  Mo- 
hammed preached  to  unwilling  ears,  and  met  with  nothing  but  opposition 
and  scorn  from  the  chief  men,  which  soon  spread  to  the  populace.  At 
last,  with  Zeid,  he  was  driven  out  of  the  town  and  maltreated  and 
wounded,  had  to  make  for  the  foothills,  where  he  hoped  to  find  shelter 
among  the  vineyards  and  to  escape  the  pursuit  of  the  infuriated  rabble. 

Driven  thus  forth  from  the  city  and  worn  out,  they  sat  down 
under  a  vine  in  a  garden  belonging  to  two  youths  of  the  hostile  Coreish, 
who  had  noticed  the  fugitives  forlorn  plight,  and  touched  by  their  suffer- 
ings sent  them  a  dish  of  grapes.  Refreshed  by  the  welcome  present, 
Mohammed  set  forth  on  his  journey,  and  half  way  to  Mecca  rested  in  the 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


265 


valley  of  Nakhla,  where,  as  we  have  seen,'  the  Genii  heard  him  at  night 
reading  the  Koran  and  were  converted.  After  a  few  days'  rest  at  this 
place  he  returned  to  Mecca,  wearied  indeed  and  disappointed,  but  still 
strong  in  the  belief  of  his  divine  mission,  Mohammed  now  found  himself 
free  from  a  personal  molestation,  under  the  protection  of  Mutin,  a  chief 
of  the  blood  of  Abd  Shams.  His  unsuccessful  mission  to  Tayif,  which  be- 
came known  to  the  hostile  faction,  procured  for  him  a  season  of  con- 
temptous  toleration,  more  bitter  perhaps,  to  his  lofty  soul  than  active 
opposition. 

At  this  time  (A.  D.  620)  he  entered  into  a  double  matrimonial  alli- 
ance, taking  to  wife  Sawda,  the  widow  of  one  of  his  converts  of  the  Core- 
ish,  and  being  betrothed  to  Ayesha — the  daughter  of  his  bosom  friend 
Abu  Bekr — then  only  seven  years  of  age. 

It  is  also  believed  by  some  writers  that  the  Jewish  hopes  of  a  Mes- 
siah had  penetrated  to  their  Arab  neighbors  and  had  awakened  in  them 
torn  as  they  were  by  intestine  feuds,  a  yearning  for  a  deliverer  so  that 
they  were  ready  to  accept  the  one  who  came  to  them  of  Arab  blood,  of 
the  sacerdotal  caste,  and  who  seemed  likely  to  fulfill  their  highest  hopes. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  Mohammed's  eloquent  teach- 
ing found  more  congenial  soil  among  them  and  so  they  joyfully  acknowl- 
edged his  mission  and  made  profession  of  "the  faith."  To  his  new  disci- 
ples he  poured  out  the  story  of  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  his  posi- 
tion at  Mecca  and  inquired  whether  they  could  protect  him  at  Medina. 
They  explained  that  their  city  was  rent  by  opposing  factions,  that  they 
could  therefore  not  make  him  the  promise  he  desired,  but  at  the  next 
annual  pilgrimage  they  would  come  and  give  him  their  answer. 

And  so  they  returned  home  and  spread  his  doctrine,  and  that  with 
such  success  that  "there  remained  hardly  a  family  in  Medina  that  men- 
tion was  not  made  of  the  Prophet."  It  would  even  appear  that  the  Jews 
favored  him,  inasmuch  as  he  had  acknowledged  the  validity  of  their 
Scriptures,  and  taught  some  doctrines  which  they  loved.  Thus,  from  a 
variety  of  causes  Islam  secretly  and  openly  took  deep  root  and  spread  in 
Medina. 

Faithful  to  their  promise,  twelve  of  the  new  converts  returned  at 
the  annual  pilgrimage  and  formally  acknowledged  him  as  their  prophet, 
and  plighted  him  their  faith,  "agreeing  to  acknowledge  but  one  God,  to 
act  morally  and  justly,  not  to  kill  their  children,  and  to  obey  the  Prophet 
in  all  things  lawful."  Such  was  the  first  pledge  of  Acaba,  agreed  to  in 
'  April,  A.  D.  621.  And  so  they  returned  to  their  native  home  and  the 
faith  continued  to  spread  in  Medina,  chiefly  through  the  preaching  of 


266 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Murab-ibu-Ormir,  a  young  and  ardent  Moslem  who  had  been  sent 
thither  by  Mohammed  at  the  request  of  the  inhabitants.  Their  idols  were 
thrown  aside,  many  even  of  the  hostile  factions  of  the  Aws  and  the  Khaz- 
raj  joined  in  the  common  devotions,  and  thus  wonderfully  was  a  purer 
theistic  faith  substituted  for  the  old  superstitions  of  the  Arab  popula- 
tion. 

External  events,  too,  favored  the  fortunes  of  Islam.  For  many  years 
the  victorious  arms  of  the  Persian  Chosroes  had  humbled  the  Christian 
princes  of  the  East,  but  in  A.  D.  621  an  important  and  decisive  victory 
gained  by  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  rolled  back  the  tide  of  invasion  from 
the  shores  of  Bosphorus,  and  the  Cross  triumphed  over  the  fire-worship 
of  the  Magian  invaders.  This  was  at  the  same  time  a  triumph  for  the 
theistic  faith  of  Mohammed  and  seemed  in  its  mystical  meaning  to  pre- 
figure the  downfall  of  Arabia's  idolatrous  rites,  for  in  it  true  believers 
saw  the  sure  accomplishments  of  a  prophecy  which  their  leader  had 
uttered,  thus :  "The  Greeks  have  been  overcome  by  the  Persians,  but 
after  their  defeat  they  shall  overcome  the  others  in  turn  within  a  few 
years."  "Write,  to  God  belongeth  the  disposal  of  this  matter,  and  on 
that  day  shall  the  believers  rejoice  in  the  success  granted  by  God." 

In  the  spring  of  the  next  year,  during  the  holy  months,  there  as- 
sembled at  the  national  shrine  at  Mecca  the  usual  crowd  of  busy  de- 
votees, but  amidst  the  throng  one  group  alone  of  about  seventy  persons 
need  claim  our  regard.  There  are  the  new  disciples  from  Medina,  come 
to  tell  the  prophet  of  their  welfare,  that  the  truth  had  found  a  ready  re- 
ception, and  that  they  were  prepared  to  offer  him  a  resting  place  in  their 
midst,  and  to  conduct  him  from  the  idolatrous  city. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  ceremonies  the  ambassadors  assembled  se- 
cretly at  the  hill  of  Acaba,  "a  secluded  glen"  northward  of  Mecca,  where, 
in  order  to  escape  the  notice  of  the  hostile  Coreish,  it  had  been  arranged 
they  were  to  meet  the  prophet,  and  formally  pledge  him  their  word. 
Before  midnight  Mohammed  repaired  to  the  place,  accompanied  by 
Al-Abbas,  who  (though  he  had  not  openly  declared  for  the  new  faith) 
loved  his  nephew  and  was  anxious  that  his  decision  at  this  crisis  should 
be  wise  and  prudent.  He  therefore  urged  on  the  men  of  Medina  not  to 
raise  hopes  which  they  could  not  fulfill,  nor  to  promise  a  protection 
which  they  might  prove  unable  to  afford.  They  replied  that  they  were 
able  and  fully  determined  to  secure  his  safety  with  their  lives  and  for- 
tunes ;  nay  more,  to  take  him  as  their  prophet  and  their  master.  Such 
was  the  "second  pledge  of  Acaba"  which  took  place  in  the  March  of  A. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


267 


D.  622.  The  protection  thus  offered  and  accepted,  gained  for  the  believ- 
ers of  Medina  the  title  of  "Ansar,"  or  Auxiliaries. 

Some  vague  accounts  of  the  midnight  meeting,  and  of  the  important 
pact  entered  into  between  Mohammed  and  the  men  of  Medina  as  well  as 
rumors  of  an  early  emigration  of  the  Moslems  from  Mecca,  reached  the 
ears  of  the  Coreish,  and  roused  them  to  a  renewal  of  such  severities  and 
persecutions,  including,  in  some  cases,  imprisonment,  as  hastened  the 
departure  of  the  believers  to  the  city  where  they  were  assurred  of  a  friend- 
ly reception.  By  permission  of  the  prophet  the  emigration  began,  and 
within  two  months — with  the  exception  of  Mohammed  and  Abu  Bekr 
and  their  households  and  those  who  were  forcibly  detained  in  slavery — 
all  had  met  with  the  cordial  welcome  and  hospitality  of  their  brethren  at 
Medina. 

Passing  the  southern  suburb  of  Mecca  in  the  dusk  of  evening,  they 
escaped  to  a  cave  on  Mount  Thaur,  a  lofty  hill  some  six  miles  to  the 
southeast.  There  they  remained  concealed  for  three  days,  till  the  search 
was  somewhat  relaxed.  Food  was  conveyed  to  them  at  night  by  Ab- 
dallah  and  Asma,  the  children  of  Abu  Bekr,  and  they  had  a  plentiful 
supply  of  milk  brought  them  by  a  faithful  shepherd.  There  is  perhaps 
no  incident  in  the  life  of  the  prophet  which  more  nearly  touches  the 
sublime,  which  sets  his  courage,  his  calm,  unwavering  trust  in  God  in  a 
more  exalted  light  than  the  story  of  this  cave  on  Mount  Thaur. 

Two  camels  had  been  provided  by  Abu  Bekr  for  their  northern  jour- 
ney, and  on  the  fourth,  day,  leaving  their  place  of  retreat,  they  struck  off 
westward  toward  the  Red  Sea,  passed  Bir-Osfan  and  Codred,  and  on 
the  eighth  day  reached  the  rocky  ridge  whence  the  traveler  looks  down 
on  the  rich  valley  in  which  Medina  lies.  Their  eyes,  wearied  with  jour- 
neying under  a  meridian  sun  through  barren  and  thirsty  defiles,  must 
have  been  refreshed  at  the  sight  which  opened  before  them.  They  would 
look  down  on  green  fields,  orchards  and  palm  groves,  a  scene  to  them 
of  quiet,  though  of  infinite  beauty  and  repose.  To  the  right  the  summit 
of  Jebel  Ayr;  northward,  beyond  the  valley,  the  granite  mountain  of 
Ohod,  where  afterwards  the  sword  of  Islam  failed  in  the  hand  that 
wielded  it,  away  to  the  south  and  east,  till  lost  in  the  horizon,  the  plateau 
of  Najid,  and  below  the  peaceful  suburb  of  Kaaba,  nestling  amid  its  palm 
groves. 

Thither  the  travelers  wended  their  way  and,  welcomed  by  the  greet- 
ing of  the  exiles  who  had  preceded-  them,  and  by  the  smiles  and  gratu- 
lations  of  the  new  converts,  soon  after  alighted  in  Medina.  Such  was  the 
celebrated  "Hijira,  or  Flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 


268 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


which  the  Mohammedan  world  computes  its  era.  He  fled  from  the  cave  of 
Thaur  on  the  20th  and  arrived  at  Medina  on  the  28th  of  June  A.  D.  622. 
Within  a  few  weeks  the  members  of  the  families  and  Abu  Bekr,  who 
had  remained  behind  at  Mecca,  set  out  leisurely  and  without  molesta- 
tion, to  join  the  rest  of  the  fugitives  at  Medina. 

THE  STORY  OF  THE  PROPHET'S  FORTUNES  AT  MEDINA. 

He  remained  four  days  at  Coba,  and  having  satisfied  himself  that  the 
general  enthusiasm  and  the  curiosity  to  see  the  man  whose  name  was  so 
great  in  Aiabia  had  lulled  the  active  passions  of  contending  factions,  he 
made  his  almost  triumphal  entry  into  Medina.  Seated  on  his  camel,  he 
allowed  the  animal  unchecked  to  select  the  spot  for  his  future  residence. 
The  place  thus  chosen  was  a  piece  of  waste  ground  within  the  eastern 
limits  of  the  city,  and  near  the  house  of  one  Abu  Ayub,  under  whose 
roof  he  resided  for  seven  months.  His  table  was  amply  supplied  by  the 
voluntary  offerings  of  the  Faithful.  The  work  of  erecting  a  mosque 
and  suitable  dwellings  was  the  first  business  of  the  prophet  and  his  fol- 
lowers. The  ground,  which  he  bought,  was  cleared  and  leveled,  and  a 
temple  some  hundred  cubits  square  arose  on  the  site  where  now  stands 
the  large  and  beautiful  mosque  which  bears  his  name. 

Round  the  temple  rose  in  process  of  time  apartments  for  his  wives 
as  they  were  gradually  added.  At  first  two  only  were  built,  one  for 
Sawda,  and  a  second  for  Ayesha,  then  in  her  tenth  year,  who  for  the 
consummation  of  her  nuptials  took  possession,  with  unostentatious  pomp, 
of  that  chamber  which  was  destined  to  be  the  burial  place  of  her  hus- 
band. Regular  services  were  commenced,  Mohammed  or  some  vicar  ap- 
pointed by  him  leading  the  daily  public  prayers ;  whilst  on  Friday,  at  the 
midday  office,  all  the  Faithful  were  expected  to  be  present.  His  mar- 
riage with  Ayesha  took  place  in  the  winter  of  A.  D.  622-623. 

With  the  Jews,  on  his  first  arrival,  he  made  a  treaty  of  alliance,  by 
which  the  free  exercise  of  their  worship,  and  the_  possession  of  their 
rights  and  property  was  guaranteed;  but  it  soon  became  apparent  that 
the  two  sects  could  not  exist  harmoniously  side  by  side.  Mohammed's 
conduct  in  his  dealings  with  the  rival  religionists  is  very  instructive.  In 
his  earlier  inspirations  he  had  spoken  of  them  as  the  chosen  of  heaven, 
and  their  books  as  having  divine  authority,  and  had,  as  we  have  seen, 
heaped  together  facts  drawn  from  their  second  canon  to  illustrate  the 
truth  of  his  mission.  He  had  acknowledged  that  a  strict  compliance 
with  the  Mosaic  ritual  was  compatible  with  future  salvation ;  he  had 
fixed  upon  their  holy  place  at  Jerusalem  as  the  Kibla  of  his  faith,  and  in 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


£69 


many  ways  sought  to  conciliate  them  and  gain  their  weighty  testimony 
to  the  truth  of  his  claims ;  but  all  had  been  in  vain ;  he  found  that  they 
disbelieved  his  assertions,  mocked  at  his  revelations,  and  gave  out  that 
in  their  prophetic  books  no  authority  for  his  pretensions  was  to  be 
found. 

Mohammed  was  not  without  resource.  He  employed  his  old  weapons 
against  them accused  them  of  rejecting  their  Messiah;  asserted  that 
they  systematically  concealed  all  the  passages  foretelling  his  appear- 
ance; and  that  on  them,  as  on  their  fathers,  who  had  rejected  the  preach- 
ing of  Noah  and  of  Abraham,  was  fallen  a  thick  darkness, — eyes  that 
would  not  see,  ears  that  would  not  hear  the  latest  message  of  Heaven 
delivered  by  his  lips.  To  embittered  feelings  succeeded  menacing  words  ; 
and  the  Jews  of  Medina  soon  felt  the  power  and  hostility  of  the  prophet's 
arm. 

In  November,  623,  an  expedition  of  eight  of  the  "Fugitives"  was 
sent  to  lie  in  wait  in  the  valley  of  Nakhla,  and  within  one  of  the  four 
sacred  months  surprised  a  Meccan  convoy.  One  man  was  killed,  two 
of  the  Coreish  taken  prisoners,  and  the  camels  with  their  loads  carried  off 
to  Medina.  "This  was  the  first  booty  the  Mussulmans  obtained,  the 
first  captives  they  seized,  the  first  life  they  took,"  and  though  the  attack 
had  been  made  in  the  holy  month  Rajab,  which  even  the  Pagan  Arabs 
respected,  a  convenient  revelation  justified  the  supposed  desecration  and 
established  that  to  kill  the  unbelievers  is  less  grevious  than  idolatry,  and 
to  war  in  the  sacred  months  than  to  obstruct  the  way  to  the  holy 
temple. 

In  January,  624,  on  the  return  journey  of  the  Meccan  caravan  from 
Syria,  Mahomet  determined  to  attempt  its  capture,  and  for  this  purpose 
set  out  from  Medina  with  305  of  the  "Fugitives"  and  "Ansar,"  and  en- 
camped by  the  fountains.  Though  Abu-Sofian  succeeded  by  forced 
marches  in  placing  his  convoy  beyond  danger,  it  was  settled  that  a  body 
of  troops,  numbering  about  950,  which,  under  Abu-Jahl  had  been  sent 
from  Mecca  to  his  assistance,  should  advance  and  measure  swords  with 
the  Moslems.  The  battle  began  with  a  series  of  single  combats  in  which 
Hamza — the  Lion  of  God — Ali  and  Obeids  encountered  and  slew  Otba, 
Walid  and  Shuiba.  The  engagement  then  became  general,  "the  army 
of  the  Faithful  was  borne  forward  by  an  enthusiasm  which  the  Coreish 
were  unable  to  withstand,"  their  line,  notwithstanding  their  superior 
number,  began  to  waver,  and  the  retreat  quickly  became  an  ignominious 
flight.  Forty-nine  of  the  Meccans  perished  and  an  equal  number  were 
taken  prisoners ;  on  the  side  of  Mahomet  fourteen  fell. 


2^0 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


On  his  return  to  Medina,  Mohammed  found  his  position  much 
strengthened,  and  he  assumed  a  dictatorial  tone  which  demanded  unhes- 
itating obedience. 

In  his  domestic  relations  Mohammed  had  to  mourn  the  death  of  his 
daughter,  Rockeya.  During  the  winter  months  he  married  his  fourth 
wife,  Haphsa,  the  daughter  of  Omar,  and  in  January,  A.  D.  625,  was  born 
his  grandson  Hasan,  the  son  of  Fatima  and  Ali. 

During  the  year  625  various  expeditions  were  sent  abroad  to  propa- 
gate the  faith  and  to  check  hostile  movements  among  neighboring  tribes, 
and  in  these  murder  and  treachery  play  an  important  part.  From  cer- 
tain political  complications  Mohammed  continued,  without  any  adequate 
reason,  to  pick  a  quarrel  with  the  Jewish  tribe  of  the  Beni  Nadhir,  whose 
stronghold,  Zohara,  lay  a  few  miles  to  the  south  of  Medina.  Refusing 
to  listen  to  any  explanation,  he  bid  them,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  go 
to  listen  to  any  explanation,  he  bade  them,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  go 
stern  mandate  and  give  up  their  houses  and  lands,  which  were  forthwith 
divided  among  the  "Fugitives."  The  Koran  contains  a  song  of  praise 
to  God,  in  which  the  Prophet  records  his  thankfulness  for  having  been 
enabled  successfully  to  accomplish  the  spoliation  and  banishment  of  this 
unoffending  people. 

In  December,  625,  he  married  his  fifth  wife,  Zeinab,  daughter  of 
Khozeima,  whose  husband  had  fallen  at  Badr.  In  January,  626,  a  sixth, 
Om-Salma,  widow  of  one  of  the  heroes  of  Ohod,  and  six  months  later 
(June)  Zeinab-biut-Jehsh,  the  divorced  wife  of  his  adopted  son,  Zeid. 
On  a  certain  day,  Mohammed,  entering  unexpectedly  the  house  of  Zeid, 
had  a  momentary  glimpse  of  the  charms  of  his  beautiful  wife,  and  uttered 
a  cry  of  passionate  admiration.  The  circumstance  was  reported,  and  the 
disciple,  by  an  immediate  divorce,  enabled  the  prophet  to  add  a  new- 
bride  to  his-  harem. 

By  these  marriages — for  he  had  then  six  living  wives — the  legal 
number  allowed  to  the  Faithful,  had  been  overstepped,  and,  moreover, 
his  alliance  with  the  wife  of  his  adopted  son  was  considered  highly  im- 
proper, if  not  incestuous.  But  Mohammed  had  an  easy  and  effectual 
method  of  silencing  present  scandal  and  avoiding  further  complication  by 
an  additional  Sura  to  the  Koran ;  thus :  O  Prophet,  we  have  allowed  thee' 
wives — and  also  the  slaves  which  thy  right  had  possesseth — and  any 
other  believing  woman,  if  she  give  herself,  and  the  Prophet  desireth  to 
take  her  to  wife.  This  is  a  peculiar  privilege  granted  thee  above  the 
rest  of  the  believers."  (Sura  xxxiii  .-49-51).  It  is  impossible  to  avoid 
wondering  at  the  strange  credulity  of  his  followers,  who,  with  seemingly 


RELIGIONSflOF  PERSIA. 


271 


undiminished  faith,  allowed  him  the  aid  of  inspiration  as  a  pander  to 
his  personal  predilections. 

Regarding-  the  fair  Zeinab,  it  was  laid  down  that  she  was  joined  to 
the  Prophet  by  the  will  of  heaven,  to  show  that  believers  commit  no  sin  in 
"marrying  the  wives  of  their  adopted  sons." 

An  expedition  (December,  626)  to  the  wells  of  Muraisi,  north  of  Jid- 
dah,  on  the  seashore,  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Beni-Mustalick  and 
the  capture  of  a  large  number  of  persons.  Among  the  captives  was  Jur- 
veira,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  the  chief,  who,  on  a  question  of  her  ran- 
som, appealed  to  the  Prophet,  was  viewed  with  eyes  of  desire,  and,  after 
embracing  the  faith  became  his  eighth  wife. 

The  expedition  is  memorable  for  the  adventure  which,  for  a  time, 
compromised  the  reputation  of  Ayesha.  By  accident  she  was  left  behind 
on  the  return  journey  to  Medina.  On  the  arrival  of  the  convoy  she  was 
found  absent  from  her  litter,  but  soon  after  appeared  seated  on  the 
camel  of  one  Safwan.  Scandal  was  soon  busy  in  putting  the  worst  con- 
struction on  her  conduct.  The  Prophet  was  distressed  at  the  misadven- 
ture which  had  befallen  his  best  beloved  wife  and  for  a  month  forsook 
her  society;  after  which  a  revelation  established  her  innocence,  and  re- 
stored her  to  his  arms.  The  circumstance  gave' rise  to  the  Moslem  law 
regarding  adultery,  which  necessitates  the  production  of  four  witnesses 
to  substantiate  the  charge  against  "women  of  reputation"  and  further 
directs  that  they  who  make  a  false  accusation  of  this  kind  are  to  be 
beaten  with  four  score  stripes.  If  convicted,  the  Koran  lays  down  that 
wives  "are  to  be  imprisoned  in  a  separate  apartment  until  death  release 
them."  By  the  Sunnah,  the  punishment,  according  to  a  supposed  abro- 
gated passage,  was  directed  to  be  death  by  stoning.  In  Egypt,  the 
usual  punishment  of  the  offense  is  drowning.  The  legislation  of  the 
Koran  in  this  particular,  and  as  regards  murder,  theft,  mutilation,  etc., 
owing  to  its  cruelty,  inconsistency  and  inadequacy,  has,  in  many  par- 
ticulars, been  neglected,  if  not  altogether  set  aside,  in  the  more  advanced 
countries  where  Islam  prevails.  Fornication  is  forbidden,  is  declared 
to  be  wickedness  and  an  evil  way,  and  is  to  be  punished  in  either  sex  by 
100  stripes.  Marriage  with  a  harlot  is  forbidden  to  true  believers.  But, 
however  salutary  Mohammed  may  have  considered  these  regulations,  the 
almost  unlimited  license  in  marriage  and  divorce  enables  offenders  to 
set  them  at  defiance. 

The  opening  of  the  year  627  (March)  saw  the  Prophet  threatened 
with  a  formidable  danger,  had  engaged  a  number  of  Bedowin  tribes  to 
assist  him  in  making  a  united  attack  on  the  rising  power  and  had  ad- 


'.'72 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


vanced  on  Medina  with  some  ten  thousand  men.  The  Moslems  en- 
trenched and  fortified  their  city,  and  were  content  to  repel  the  attack 
from  behind  their  walls. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  Confederates  they  had  found  means  to  win  over 
the  Beni-Couitza,  a  Jewish  tribe,  whose  possessions  lay  exposed  to  at- 
tack and  who  had  indeed  entered  into  terms  of  alliance  with  Mohammed, 
but  whose  compact  with  him  "was  of  a  weak  and  precarious  nature." 
Though  their  defection,  which  amounted  to  little  more  than  neutrality, 
at  such  a  critical  moment  might  have  warranted  Mohammed  in  expelling 
them  from  their  possessions  it  by  no  means  justified  the  slaughter  which 
followed.  On  the  retreat  of  Abu  Sofian  they  were  besieged,  reduced  to 
extremity  and  had  to  surrender  at  discretion.  Their  fate  was  left  to  the 
decision  of  a  chief  of  the  Beni  Aws,  and  by  him  the  men  were  adjudged 
to  death,  and  the  women  and  children  to  slavery.  In  companies  of  five 
or  six,  the  horror-stricken  Jews,  to  the  number  of  some  800,  were  led  out 
and  in  Mohammed's  presence,  butchered  in  cold  blood. 

Yet  in  the  Koran  this  accursed  slaughter  is  applauded,  attributed  to 
divine  interposition,  and  pronounced  consonant  with  the  love  and  com- 
passion of  the  All-Merciful.  Muir  justly  remarks  that  "the  butchery  of 
the  Couitza  leaves  a  dark  stain  of  infamy  on  the  character  of  Mohammed. 
Among  the  captives  was  a  Jewess  (Rihana)  whose  charms  had  caught 
bis  eye.  Refusing  the  position  of  a  wife,  she  became  his  slave  and  concu- 
bine on  his  return  from  the  spot  where  he  had  just  witnessed  the  bleed- 
ing corpse  of  her  husband,  and  the  destruction  of  all  her  male  relatives. 

I  pass  over  the  remaining  events  of  the  year  (A.  D.  627)  which  are 
a  repetition  of  the  usual  expeditions  for  plunder,  for  dispersing  robber 
bands,  or  for  repelling  the  encroachments  of  other  tribes  for  pasturage. 
During  their  time  we  know  assassinations  were  deliberately  planned  by 
Mohammed,  and  the  perpetrators  blessed  and  rewarded,  and  we  also  meet 
with  instances  at  this  period  of  the  barbarous  mutilation  of  captives.  On 
this  head  the  Koran  directs  "that  the  enemies  of  God  and  of  his  Apostle 
shall  be  slain,  or  crucified,  or  have  their  hands  and  feet  cut  off,  or  be 
banished  from  the  land."  Theft  is  to  be  punished  thus :  "If  a  man  or  a 
woman  steal,  cut  off  their  hands."  The  law  of  "life  for  life,  eye  for  eye," 
and  that  wounds  are  to  be  punished  with  the  like  is  retained  in  full  force. 
Thus,  then,  we  have  the  Jewish  law  of  retaliation  abolished  by  the  Chris- 
tian dispensation — revived  in  the  Koran,  and  express  sanction  given  to 
the  barbarous  practice  of  mutilation.  The  recurrence  of  the  holy  month, 
Dzul  Caada,  of  the  next  year  (February,  628)  recalled  to  the  mind  of 
Mohammed  and  his  followers  thoughts  of  the  customary  pilgrimage 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


and  of  their  homes  at  Mecca,  from  which  they  had  been  excluded  for  six 
years. 

At  about  this  period  (A.  D.  628)  Mohammed  sent  embassies  to  cer- 
tain foreign  sovereigns,  inviting  them  and  their  subjects  to  embrace 
Islam.  It  may  be  well  to  consider  the  political  condition  at  the  time  of 
the  countries  bordering  on  Arabia. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  envoys,  Muckonckas,  the  Roman  governor  of 
Egypt,  treated  them  with  honor,  and  sent  as  presents  to  the  Prophet  a 
white  mule  and  two  Coptic  girls.    Being  sisters,  only  one  (according 
to  the  Moslem  law)  was  lawful  to  him,  so  he  selected  Mary,  whose  fair 
n  features  and  curling  hair  captivated  the  heart  of  Mohammed,  and  she  be- 
!  came  his  concubine. 

In  the  autumn  of  the  year  (A.  D.,  628)  he  set  on  foot  an  expedi- 
tion against  Kheibar,  a  town  100  miles  to  the  north  of  Medina,  inhab- 
ited chiefly  by  Jews,  whose  wealth  and  rich  domains  promised  an  abun- 
dant harvest  of  plunder.  One  by  one  their  fortified  villages  fell  into  his 
hands,  and  driven  at  last  to  extremities  they  were  obliged  to  give  up 
their  citadel.  Camuss,  Kinana,  their  chief,  was  tortured  to  disclose  his 
wealth,  and  then  beheaded,  and  the  dark  suspicion  rests  upon  the 
Prophet,  that  the  well-known  beauty  of  Safia,  Kinana's  recently  married 
wife,  was  the  secret  cause  of  her  husband's  execution.  Immediately 
after  his  death  she  was  summoned  to  the  Prophet's  presence,  who  "cast 
his  mantle  round  her,"  and  she  became  his  ninth  wife. 

The  advent  of  the  holy  month,  Dzul  Caada,  of  the  next  year  (Febru- 
ary, 629)  was  eagerly  expected  by  Mohammed  and  his  followers,  for  then, 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  truce  of  Hodeibia,  they  might,  without 
I  molestation,  visit  the  holy  city  and  spend  three  days  in  the  performance 
of  the  accustomed  rites. 

Eagerly  did  he  press  forward  to  the  Kaaba,  touched  with  his  staff 
;  the  Black  Stone,  seven  times  made  the  circuit  of  the  holy  house,  seven 
1  times  journeyed  between  Safa  and  Marwa,  sacrificed  the  victims  and  ful- 
I  filled  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  lesser  pilgrimage. 

While  at  Mecca  he  negotiated  an  alliance  with  Meinruna,  his  elev- 
enth and  last  wife.    His  marriage  gained  him  two  most  important  con- 
verts— Khalid,  the  "Sword  of  God,"  who  before  this  had  turned  the  tide 
1    of  battle  at  Ohod;  and  Amru,  destined  afterwards  to  carry  to  foreign 
>    lands  the  victorious  standards  of  Islam. 

The  services  of  these  two  important  converts  were  quickly  utilized. 
H  An  envoy  of  Mohammed  to  the  Christian  Prince  of  Bostia,  in  Syria,  hav- 
!    ing  been  slain  by  the  chief  of  Muta,  a  village  to  the  southeast  of  the  Dead 


274 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Sea,  a  force  of  3,000  men  under  his  adopted  son  Zeid,  was  sent  (Septem- 
ber, A.  D.  629)  to  exact  retribution  and  to  call  the  offending  tribe  to  the 
faith.  The  result  was  their  disastrous  defeat  and  repulse.  Zeid  and 
Jafar,  a  brother  of  Ali,  fell  defending  the  white  banner  of  the  Prophet. 
Mohammed  felt  deeply  the  loss  of  Zeid  and  Jafar,  and  exhibited  the  ten- 
derest  sympathy  for  their  widows  and  orphans. 

(  >n  the  1st  of  January,  630,  Mohammed's  march  commenced,  and 
after  eight  days  through  unfrequented  roads  and  defiles,  the  army, 
swelled  to  the  number  of  10,000  men,  halted  and  lighted  their  camp- 
fires  on  the  heights  of  Man-al-Tzahran,  a  day's  march  from  the  sacred 
city. 

The  Moslems  made  their  entry  from  four  different  quarters  and  the 
prophet  entered  the  city  repeating  verses  of  the  Koran.  Hav- 
ing approached  the  Kaaba  he  touched  the  Black  Stone  and  made  the 
seven  prescribed  circuits.  The  custody  of  the  key  (Hijaba)  he  con- 
tinued in  the  family  of  Othman  a  descendant  of  Abd-al  Derr,  and  the 
cup  of  the  well  in  that  of  Abbas  in  whose  family  it  remains  to  this  day. 
Without  delay,  orders  went  forth  to  sweep  away  all  the  idolatrous  relics 
from  the  holy  house,  and  Hobal  and  its  fellows  were  thrown  down 
and  destroyed. 

Parties  were  sent  out  to  destroy  the  idols  around ;  and  in  the  valley 
of  Nakhla,  the  grave  of  Al  Ozza  and  its  weird  priestess  were  destroyed 
by  Khalid. 

(  )n  his  return  from  the  conquest  of  Mecca,  Mohammed,  then  in  his 
60th  year,  was  gladdened  by  the  birth  of  a  son  by  his  concubine,  Mary 
the  Copt. 

The  conquest  of  Mecca  was  followed  by  the  gradual  submission 
of  Arabia  and  the  acknowledgment  of  the  spiritual  and  temporal  suprem- 
acy of  the  prophet  throughout  the  entire  Peninsula. 

March,  631,  Mohammed  issued  an  important  command,  the  crown- 
ing stone  of  the  system  he  had  raised,  which  shows  at  once  the  power 
he  wielded  and  the  strong  hold  his  doctrines  had  already  taken  through- 
out Arabia.  Refusing  to  be  present  himself  during  the  ceremonies  of 
the  pilgrimage,  he  commissioned  Ali  to  announce  to  the  assembled 
multitudes  in  the  valley  of  Mina,  that  at  the  expiration  of  the  four  sacred 
months  the  prophet  would  hold  himself  absolved  from  every  obligation 
or  league  with  idolaters,  that  after  that  year  no  unbeliever  would  be 
allowed  to  perform  the  pilgrimage,  or  to  visit  the  holy  places ;  and 
further,  he  gave  direction  that  either  within  or  without  the  sacred  ter- 
ritory war  was  to  be  waged  with  them,  that  they  were  to  be  killed,  be- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


275 


sieged  and  laid  in  wait  for  "wheresoever  found."  He  ordains,  however, 
that  if  they  repent  and  pay  the  legal  alms  they  are  to  be  dismissed  freely, 
but  as  regards  ''those  unto  whom  the  Scriptures  have  been  delivered 
(Jews  and  Christians,  etc.)  they  are  to  be  fought  against  until  they 
pay  tribute  by  right  of  subjection,  and  are  reduced  low." 

About  the  middle  of  the  year  (A.  D.  631)  a  heavy  grief  fell  upon 
Mohammed  in  the  death  of  his  little  son  Ibrahim,  then  about  15  months 
old.  He  fondly  trusted  that  his  child  might  be  destined  to  transmit  his 
name  to  posterity ;  but  now  these  hopes  were  frustrated,  and  with  a 
broken  heart  he  followed  the  beloved  remains  to  the  cemetery  of  El 
Bakia.  No  spot  more  sacred  than  this  is  visited  by  the  devout  pilgrims 
to  Medina.  There  lie,  with  the  exception  of  Khadija,  all  the  prophet's 
wives,  the  "Mothers  of  the  Faithful"  as  they  one  by  one  passed  away. 
There,  in  his  untimely  grave,  lies  Othman,  the  third  Caliph ;  and  there 
is  seen  the  sepulchre  of  Abbas,  the  ancestor  of  those  mighty  princes 
who,  on  the  ruin  of  the  house  of  Omeya,  held  high  state  in  Baghdad. 
There  are  the  tombs  of  Halima,  the  prophet's  nurse,  of  three  of  his 
daughters,  and  of  the  murdered  Hasan,  his  grandson,  and  there  are  in- 
terred many  of  the  pious  dead  who  are  accounted  martyrs,  princes, 
and  imams  in  the  calendar  of  Islam.  In  this  ground,  then,  the  little 
Ibrahim  found  his  last  resting  place. 

On  the  return  of  the  sacred  month  (March,  A.  D.  632)  Mohammed 
accompanied  by  all  his  wives,  selected  his  victims,  assumed  the  pilgrim 
garb,  and  set  out  on  what  is  called  "The  Valedictory  Pilgrimage"  to  the 
holy  place,  from  which  every  trace  of  the  old  superstitions  had  been  re- 
moved, and  which,  in  accordance  with  his  orders  for  the  previous  years, 
no  idolator  was  to  visit.  Approaching  the  Kaaba  by  the  gate  of  the 
Beni  Sheyba,  he  carefully  performed  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  "Omra" 
or  "Lesser  Pilgrimage,"  and  then  proceeded  to  consummate  those  of  the 
greater.  On  the  8th  of  the  holy  month  Dzul-Hyja,  he  rode  to  the  Wadi 
Mina,  some  three  miles  east  of  Mecca,  and  rested  there  for  the  night. 
Next  day,  passing  Mosdalifa,  the  midway  station,  he  reached,  in  the 
evening,  the  valley  in  which  stands  the  granite  hill  of  the  Arrarat.  From 
the  summit  he  spoke  to  the  pilgrims  regarding  its  sacred  precincts, 
announced  to  them  the  perfecting  of  their  religion,  offered  up  the  pre- 
scribed prayers  and  hurried  back  to  Mosdalifa  for  the  night.  On  the 
10th,  proceeding  to  Mina,  he  cast  the  accustomed  stones,  slew  the 
victims  brought  for  sacrifice,  had  his  head  shaved  and  his  nails  pared, 
ordering  the  hair,  etc.,  to  be  burnt  and  the  ceremonies  ended,  laid  aside 
the  pilgrim  garb.    At  Mina,  during  his  three  days'  stay  he  preached  to 


276 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  pilgrims,  called  them  to  witness  that  he  had  faithfully  fulfilled  his 
mission,  and  urged  them  not  to  depart  from  the  exact  observances  of 
the  religion  which  he  had  appointed.  Returning  to  Mecca,  he  again 
went  through  the  ceremonies  of  the  Omra,  made  the  circuit  of  the  tem- 
ple, drank  of  the  well  Zem  Zem,  prayed  in  the  Kaaba,  and  thus  rigor- 
ously having  performed  all  the  ceremonies  that  his  example  might  serve 
as  a  model  for  all  succeeding  time,  he  returned  to  Medina. 

It  was  about  the  end  of  May  (A.  D.  632)  that  he  was  attacked 
with  a  violent  fever.  The  fever  continued  for  some  seven  or  eight  days 
and  left  him  but  little  strength  to  once  more  address  his  followers  in 
the  Mosque.  He  returned  to  the  room  of  Ayesha.  His  illness  increas- 
ing, he  deputed  Abu  Bekr  to  lead  the  public  prayers,  and  this  was  gen- 
erally understood  to  intimate  that  in  the  event  of  his  death  he  designed 
him  for  his  successor.  About  the  8th  of  June  he  had  gained  sufficient 
strength  to  make  his  final  visit  to  the  Mosque.  He  proclaimed  that  he 
had  made  lawful  to  them  only  what  God  approved;  that  each  one  of 
them  must  work  out  his  own  acceptance  with  God,  inasmuch  as  he 
himself  had  no  power  to  save  them ;  and  after  discharging  some  small 
claims,  he  returned  exhausted  and  fainting  to  Ayesha's  room.  With 
his  head  on  her  lap  he  prayed  for  assistance  in  his  last  agonies  and  for 
admission  to  the  companionship  of  God.  Ayesha  tried  in  every  way 
to  soothe  the  sufferings  of  his  last  moments.  Ejaculatory  words  at  in- 
tervals escaped  his  lips.  "Eternity  of  Paradise!" — "Pardon!" — "The 
glorious  associates  on  high  !"and  then  all  was  still.  The  Prophet  of 
Mecca  was  dead. 

Mohammed  himself  died  in  the  early  part  of  June,  632,  aged  sixty- 
three  ;  and  the  army  of  invasion  which  had  been  held  back  by  his  sickness 
advanced  upon  Syria,  with  the  well  known  cry  of  "Strike,  O  ye  con- 
querors" they  slew  all  who  opposed  them  and  carried  off  the  remainder 
into  captivity.  They  burned  the  villages,  the  fields  of  standing  corn, 
and  the  groves  of  palm,  and  behind  them  there  went  up,  as  it  were,  a 
whirlwind  of  fire  and  smoke. 

Such  was  the  method  by  which  Islam  was  now  propagated.  "If 
my  kingdom  were  of  this  world,"  said  Jesus,  "then  would  my  servants 
fight."  Mohammed's  kingdom  was  essentially  of  this  world,  and  stoutly 
did  his  servants  fight  for  it.  Tradition  loved  to  dwell  on  the  delights 
that  awaited  the  strenuous  fighters  for  Islam.  "Paradise,"  said  a  fa- 
miliar proverb  "lies  under  the  shadow  of  the  swords."  The  sword  was 
the  key  of  heaven  and  hell;  and  a  drop  of  blood  shed  in  the  cause  of 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


277 


God,  a  night  spent  in  arms,  was  of  more  avail  than  months  of  fasting 
and  prayer. 

In  634  the  victorious  Moslems  under  Khalid  took  Damascus.  In  636 
they  utterly  defeated  the  Persians  at  Kadesia,  and  drove  Heraclius, 
the  same  year  out  of  Syria. 

In  647  North  Africa  was  invaded,  and  within  forty  years  the  victori- 
ous Moslems  had  reached  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  their  general,  Akba, 


OMMAR. 

spurring  his  horse  into  the  sea,  exclaimed  with  the  disappointment  of 
an  Alexander  at  the  Ganges.  "Great  God,  if  my  course  were  not  stopped 
by  this  sea,  I  would  still  go  on  to  the  unknown  kingdoms  of  the  West, 
preaching  the  Unity  of  Thy  Holy  Name,  and  putting  to  the  sword  the 
rebellious  nations  which  refuse  to  call  upon  Thee." 

Cypress  fell  before  the  Saracens  in  648,  and  Rhodes  five  years  later, 
while  Constantinople  itself  was  besieged  in  668.  By  the  end  of  the 
century  they  had  reached  the  Oxus  in  Asia,  and  the  invasion  of  Turke- 


278 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


stan  with  the  conquest  of  Bokhara  and  Samarcancl  in  the  extreme 
East  was  coincident  with  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  Spain  and  Lower 
Gaul  in  the  West.  The  subjugation  of  Spain  was  quickly  succeeded 
by  the  second  fruitless  siege  of  Constantinople  in  716.  Sixteen  years 
rater  the  battle  of  Tours  set  a  limit  to  Saracen  conquest  in  Western 
Europe.  Crete  became  Moslem  in  823  and  Sicily  was  completely  theirs 
in  878,  while  in  846  Rome  itself  was  partially  sacked  by  the  Arabs,  and 
only  saved  by  the  bravery  of  Leo  IV.  Though  repulsed  from  Rome  the 
Moslems  made  good  their  footing  at  one  or  two  points  in  Southern 
Italy,  from  which  they  were  not  finally  driven  until  1058,  A.  D.  So 
nearly  did  Italy  experience  the  same  fate  as  Spain. 

It  was  not  until  the  eleventh  century  that  the  Saracens  really  in- 
vaded India  under  Mahmud  of  Ghaziri,  and  within  half  a  century  of 
that  time  had  begun  the  advance  of  the  Turkish  hordes  which  was  des- 
tined to  carry  the  green  banner  of  the  Prophet  into  the  heart  of  Eu- 
rope and  almost  to  sweep  away  the  remnants  of  Eastern  Christianity. 
In  1076  the  Turks  had  reached  Jerusalem,  and  when  the  Ottoman 
Turks  took  up  the  sword  of  Islam  from  the  failing  hands  of  the  Sel- 
juchians,  their  victorious  progress  was  not  destined  to  be  checked  till 
Suleiman  the  Magnificent  was  foiled  before  the  walls  of  Vienna.  It 
was  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century  that  the  Ottoman  Turks  first  became 
powerful.  By  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  they  had  made  good  their 
footing  in  Europe.  Thrace,  Bulgaria,  Wallachia,  Servia  were  rapidly 
and  thoroughly  conquered  and  by  the  end  of  the  century  Greece  had 
become  a  Turkish  province,  and  in  1453  the  fall  of  Constantinople 
sealed  the  doom  of  the  Eastern  Empire.  Seventy-six  years  later  the  un- 
successful siege  of  Vienna  formed  the  high  water  mark  of  Moslem 
conquest  in  that  direction.  But  many  of  the  fairest  provinces  of  South- 
eastern Europe  became  parts  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  which  extended  on 
the  Adriatic  as  far  as  the  Venetian  territory,  including  Bosnia,  Herza- 
govina,  and  the  ancient  Illyricum  as  far  as  Histria.  From  thence  their 
border  ran  through  Hungary,  midway  between  Buda  and  Vienna,  and 
Buda  and  Cracow,  Transylvania  and  Moldavia  were  theirs,  and  Bes- 
sarabia and  Podolia  as  far  as  the  River  Bug  on  the  north.  On  the 
Euxine.  the  Turks  were  in  possession  of  the  Crimea;  the  shores  of  the 
Sea  of  Azoph  were  theirs,  and  a  part  of  Caucasia.  So  that  a  large 
slice  of  Europe  was  under  Moslem  sway,  and  there  needed  only  the 
capture  of  Rome,  so  confidently  predicted  by  Bajazet,  for  the  whole 
of  Southern  Europe  to  acknowledge  the  Moslem  supremacy.  Spain, 
too,  might  have  been  won  back  for  the  Spanish  Arabs,  the  decay  and 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


-279 


final  extinction  of  whose  power  synchronizes  with  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople and  the  firm  establishment  of  the  Turks  in  Europe. 

In  Christian  lands  it  is  usually  called  Mohammedanism,  from 
the  name  of  its  founder,  which  signifies  "The  Prophet  of  God."  But 
believers  in  the  creed  call  it  Islam,  meaning-  "Full  Submission  to  God," 
and  call  themselves  Moslems,  or  the  people  of  the  Islam. 

Well  might  the  founder  call  his  faith  Islam,  or  surrender,  for  it 
did  mean  a  complete  surrender,  social,  political,  national  and  religious 
to  a  semi-barbarous  nation  of  vagabonds  and  freebooters. 

The  life  of  Mohammed  most  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  very 
distinct  parts,  which  are  apparently  in  marked  contrast  to,  not  by  any 
means  in  harmony  with,  each  other.  The  first  part  brings  him  forward 
as  a  man  of  correct  principle,  and  irreproachable  character ;  a  faithful 
husband,  generous  friend  and  loyal  citizen ;  a  devotee  of  melancholic 
temperament  and  meditative  turn  of  mind ;  a  religious  teacher,  fond  of 
retirement  and  contemplation,  lifted  by  a  lofty  ideal  above  the  low  level 
of  popular  ambitions  and  efforts,  and  led  by  a  series  of  visions  and 
ecstatic  transports  to  a  belief  in  and  a  public  declaration  of  his  divine 
commission.  The  second  part  places  before  us  a  voluptuary,  not 
ashamed  to  call  down  the  sanction  of  heaven  to  the  gratification  of  the 
vilest  of  his  passions ;  an  unscrupulous  propagandist,  determined  to 
spread  his  religion  by  the  terror  of  his  sword ;  an  intriguing  warrior, 
gaining  victories  oftener  by  strokes  of  a  tortuous  policy  than  by  deeds 
of  prowess  and  bravery ;  a  vindictive  tyrant,  gloating  over  the  sufferings 
of  the  victims  sacrificed  to  his  rage,  and  a  shameless  truce-breaker,  ready 
on  the  flimsiest  of  pretexts,  to  set  aside  the  most  solemn  of  treaties  in 
furtherance  of  schemes  of  self-aggrandizement.  The  two  pictures  are 
so  very  dissimilar  to  each  other  that  we  instinctively  recoil  from  the 
necessity  of  representing  them  as  two  phases  of  one  and  the  same  life. 

Mohammed  was  subject  to  epilepsy,  or  rather  some  hysterical 
disorder,  and  was  on  that  account  most  likely  to  see  visions  and  dream 
dreams  and  hear  voices.  He  could  not  distinguish  the  normal  and  ab- 
normal exercise  of  his  faculties.  After  a  time  he  was  probably  led  to 
voluntary  self-deception.  At  least,  such  is  often  the  case  with  charac- 
ters of  similar  organization.  He  did  not  believe  in  the  religion  of  his 
associates. 

THE  CHARACTER  OF  MOHAMMED. 

When  Ayesha  was  questioned  about  Mohammed,  she  used  to  say : 
"He  was  a  man  just  such  as  yourselves ;  he  laughed  often  and  smiled 


'.'SO 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


much."  "But  how  would  he  occupy  himself  at  home?"  "Even  as  any  of 
you  occupy  yourselves.  He  would  mend  his  "clothes,  and  cobble  his 
shoes.  He  used  to  help  me  in  my  household  duties ;  but  what  he  did 
oftenest  was  to  sew.  If  he  had  the  choice  between  two  matters,  he 
would  choose  the  easiest,  so  as  that  no  sin  accrued  therefrom.  He 
never  took  revenge  excepting  where  the  honor  of  God  was  concerned. 
When  angry  with  any  person,  he  would  say  'What  hath  taken  such  a 
one  that  he  should  soil  his  forehead  in  the  mud !'  " 

His  humility  was  shown  by  his  riding  upon  asses,  by  his  accepting 
Ihe  invitation  even  of  slaves,  and  when  mounted,  by  taking  another 
behind  him.  He  would  say,  'I  sit  at  meals  as  a  servant  doeth,  and  1 
eat  like  a  servant ;  for  really  I  am  a  servant ;'  and  he  would  sit  as  one 
that  was  always  ready  to  rise.  He  discouraged  fasting,  and  works  of 
mortification.  When  seated  with  his  followers,  he  would  remain  long 
silent  at  a  time.  In  the  mosque  at  Medina  they  used  to  repeat  pieces 
of  poetry,  and  tell  stories  regarding  the  incidents  that  occurred  in  the 
days  of  ignorance ;  and  laugh ;  and  Mohammed,  listening  to  them,  would 
smile  at  what  they  said. 

Mohammed  hated  nothing  more  than  lying;  and  whenever  he  knew 
that  any  of  his  followers  had  erred  in  this  respect,  he  would  hold  him- 
self aloof  from  them  until  he  was  assured  of  their  repentance. 

HIS  SPEECH. 

He  did  not  speak  rapidly,  running  his  words  into  one  another,  but 
enunciated  each  syllable  distinctly,  so  that  what  he  said  was  imprinted 
in  the  memory  of  every  one  who  heard  him.  When  at  public  prayers, 
it  might  be  known  from  a  distance  that  he  was  reading,  by  the  motion 
of  his  beard.  He  never  read  in  a  singing  in  chanting  style;  but  he 
would  draw  out  his  voice,  resting  at  certain  places.  Thus,  in  the  pref- 
atory words  of  a  Sura,  he  would  pause  after  bismillahi,  after  al  Rahman, 
and  again  at  Rahim. 

GAIT. 

He  used  to  walk  so  rapidly  that  the  people  half  run  behind  him, 
and  could  hardly  keep  up  with  him. 

HABITS  IN  EATING. 

.  He  never  ate  reclining,  for  Gabriel  had  told  him  that  such  was  the 
manner  of  kings ;  nor  had  he  ever  two  men  to  walk  behind  him.  He 
used  to  eat  with  his  thumb  and  his  two  forefingers ;  and  when  he  had 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


281 


done  he  would  lick  them,  beginning  with  the  middle  one.  When  offered 
by  Gabriel  the  valley  of  Mecca  full  of  gold,  he  preferred  to  forego  it ;  say- 
ing that  when  he  was  hungry  he  would  come  before  the  Lord  lowly,  and 
when  full,  with  praise. 

MODERATION. 

A  servant-maid  being  once  long  in  returning  from  an  errand,  Mo- 
hammed was  annoyed,  and  said  :  "If  it  were  not  for  the  law  of  retaliation, 
1  should  have  punished  you  with  this  tooth-pick." 

CUSTOM  OF  PRAYER. 

He  used  to  stand  for  such  a  length  of  time  at  prayer  that  his  legs 
would  swell.  When  remonstrated  with,  he  said :  "What !  shall  I  not 
behave  as  a  thankful  servant  should  ?"  He  never  yawned  at  prayer. 
When  he  sneezed,  he  did  so  with  a  subdued  voice.  At  funerals  he  never 
rode;  he  would  remain  silent  on  such  occasions,  as  if  conversing  with 
himself,  so  that  the  people  used  to  think  he  was  holding  communication 
with  the  dead. 

REFUSED  TO  MAKE  PERSONAL  USE  OF  TITHES. 

While  he  accepted  presents,  he  refused  to  use  anything  that  had 
been  offered  as  alms;  neither  would  he  allow  any  one  in  his  family  to 
use  what  had  been  brought  as  alms ;  "For,"  said  he,  "alms  are  the  im- 
purity of  mankind."  His  scruples  on  this  point  were  so  strong  that  he 
would  not  eat  a  date  picked  up  on  the  road,  lest  perchance  it  might 
have  dropped  from  a  tithe-load. 

FOOD  RELISHED. 

Mohammed  had  a  special  liking  for  sweetmeat  and  honey.  He  was 
also  fond  of  cucumbers  and  undried  dates.  When  a  lamb  or  a  kid  was 
being  cooked,  Mohammed  would  go  to  the  pot,  take  out  the  shoulder 
and  eat  it.  He  used  to  eat  moist  dates  and  cooked  food  together.  What 
he  most  relished  was  a  mess  of  bread  cooked  with  meat,  and  a  dish  of 
dates  dressed  with  butter  and  milk. 

Mohammed  used  to  have  sweet  (rain)  water  kept  for  his  use. 

WOMEN  AND  SCENTS. 

A  great  array  of  traditions  are  produced  to  prove  that  the  prophet 
was  fond  of  women  and  scents,  and  liked  these  of  all  things  in  the  world 
the  best.  Ayesha  used  to  say :  "The  Prophet  loved  three  things — 
women,  scents  and  food ;  he  had  his  heart's  desire  of  the  two  first,  but 
not  of  the  last. 


282 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


STRAIGHTENED  MEANS  AT  MEDINA. 

Ayesha  tells  us  that  for  months  together  Mohammed  did  not  get  a 
full  meal.  "Months  used  to  pass,"  she  says  again,  "and  no  fire  would 
be  lighted  in  Mohammed's  house,  either  for  baking  bread  or  cooking 
meat."  "How  then,  did  ye  live?"  "By  the  two  black  things  (dates  and 
water)  and  by  what  the  citizens  used  to  send  unto  us ;  the  Lord  requite 
them !  Such  of  them  as  had  milch  cattle  would  send  us  a  little  milk.  The 
Prophet  never  enjoyed  the  luxury  of  two  kinds  of  food  the  same  day; 
if  he  had  flesh,  there  was  nothing  else;  and  if  he  had  dates;  so 
likewise  if  he  had  bread." 

"We  possessed  no  sieves,  but  used  to  bruise  the  grain  and  blow  off 
the  husks." 

APPEARANCE,  HABITS,  ETC. 

He  used  to  wear  two  garments.  His  izar  (under-garment)  hung 
down  three  or  four  inches  below  his  knees.  His  mantle  was  not  wrapped 
round  him  so  as  to  cover  his  body,  but  he  would  draw  the  end  of  it 
under  his  shoulder. 

He  used  to  divide  his  time  into  three  parts :  one  was  given  to  God, 
the  second  allotted  to  his  family,  and  the  third  to  himself.  When  public 
business  began  to  press  upon  him  he  gave  up  one-half  of  the  latter  por- 
tion to  the  service  of  others. 

When  he  pointed  he  did  so  with  his  whole  hand ;  and  when  he 
was  astonished  he  turned  his  hand  over  (with  the  palm  upwards).  In 
speaking  with  another,  he  brought  his  hand  near  to  the  person  ad- 
dressed ;  and  he  would  strike  the  palm  of  the  left  in  the  thumb  of  the 
right  hand. 

Angry,  he  would  avert  his  face ;  joyful,  he  would  look  downwards. 
He  often  smiled,  and,  when  he  laughed,  his  teeth  used  to  appear  white 
as  hailstones. 

In  the  interval  allotted  to  others  he  received  all  that  came  to  him, 
listened  to  their  representations,  and  occupied  himself  in  disposing  of 
their  business  and  in  hearing  what  they  had  to  tell  him.  He  would  say 
on  such  occasions:  'Let  those  that  are  here  give  information  regarding 
that  which  passeth  to  them  that  are  absent;  and  they  that  cannot  them- 
selves appear  to  make  known  their  necessities,  let  others  report  them  to 
me  in  their  stead;  the  Lord  will  establish  the  feet  of  such  in  the  Day 
of  Judgment," 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


233 


SEAL  OF  PROPHECY. 

"This."  says  one,  "was  a  protuberance  on  the  Prophet's  back  of  the 
size  and  appearance  of  a  pigeon's  egg."  It  is  said  to  have  been  the  divine 
seal  which,  according  to  the  predictions  of  the  Scriptures,  marked  Mo- 
hammed as  the  last  of  the  Prophets.  How  far  Mohammed  himself  en- 
couraged this  idea,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  From  the  traditions,  it  would 
seem  to  have  been  nothing  more  than  a  mole  of  unusual  size ;  and  the 
saying  of  Mohammed,  that  "God  had  placed  it  there,"  was  probably  the 
germ  of  supernatural  associations  which  grew  up  concerning  it. 

HAIR. 

His  hair  used  to  be  combed ;  it  was  neither  curling  nor  smooth.  He 
had,  says  one,  four  curled  locks.  His  hair  was  ordinarily  parted,  but  he 
did  not  care  if  it  was  not  so.  According  to  another  tradition,  the  Jews 
and  Christians  used  to  let  their  hair  fall  down,  while  the  heathen  parted 
it.  Now,  Mohammed  loved  to  follow  the  people  of  the  Book  in  matters 
concerning  which  he  had  no  express  command.  So  he  used  to  let  down 
his  hair  without  parting  it.  Subsequently,  however,  he  fell  into  the  habit 
of  parting  it. 

MUSTACHE. 

Mohammed  used  to  clip  his  moustache.  A  Magian  once  came  to  him 
and  said :  "You  ought  to  clip  your  beard  and  allow  your  mustache  to 
grow."  "Nay,"  said  the  Prophet,  "for  my  Lord  hath  commanded  me  to 
clip  the  mustache  and  allow  the  beard  to  grow. 

DRESS. 

Various  traditions  are  quoted  on  the  different  colors  he  used  to 
wear — white  chiefly,  but  also  red,  yellow  and  green.  He  sometimes  put 
on  woolen  clothes.  Ayesha,  it  is  said,  exhibited  a  piece  of  woolen  stuff 
in  which  she  swore  that  Mohammed  died.  She  adds  that  he  once  had  a 
black  woolen  dress,  and  she  still  remembered,  as  she  spoke,  the  contrast 
between  the  Prophet's  fair  skin  and  the  black  cloth.  "The  odor  of  it,  how- 
ever, becoming  unpleasant,  he  cast  it  off,  for  he  loved  sweet  odors." 

He  entered  Mecca  on  the  taking  of  the  city  (some  say)  with  a  black 
turban.  He  had  also  a  black  standard.  The  end  of  his  turban  used  to 
hang  down  between  his  shoulders.  He  once  received  the  present  of  a 
scarf  for  a  turban,  which  had  a  figured  or  spotted  fringe;  and  this  he 
cut  off  before  wearing  it.  He  was  very  fond  of  striped  Yemen  stuffs. 
He  used  to  wrap  his  turban  many  times  round  his  head,  and  "the  lower 
edge  of  it  used  to  appear  like  the  soiled  clothes  of  an  oil-dealer," 


284 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


He  once  prayed  in  a  silken  dress,  and  then  cast  it  aside  with  abhor- 
rence, saying:  "Such  stuff  it  doth  not  become  the  pious  to  wear."  On 
another  occasion,  as  he  prayed  in  a  figured  or  spotted  mantle,  the  spots 
attracted  his  notice ;  when  he  had  ended,  he  said :  "Take  away  that 
mantle,  for  verily  it  hath  distracted  me  in  my  prayers,  and  bring  me  a 
common  one."  His  sleeve  ended  at  the  wrist.  The  robes  in  which  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  receiving  embassies,  and  his  fine  Hadramaut  mantle, 
remained  with  the  Caliphs ;  when  worn  or  rent,  these  garments  were 
mended  with  fresh  cloth ;  and  in  after  times,  the  Caliphs  used  to  wear 
them  at  the  festivals.  When  he  put  on  new  clothes  (either  an  under-gar- 
ment,  a  girdle,  or  a  turban),  the  Prophet  would  offer  up  a  prayer,  such 
as  this :  "Praise  be  to  the  Lord  who  hath  clothed  me  with  that  which 
shall  hide  my  nakedness  and  adorn  me  while  I  live.  I  pray  Thee  for  the 
good  that  is  in  this,  and  the  good  that  hath  been  made  for  it ;  and  I  seek 
refuge  from  the  evil  that  is  in  the  same,  and  from  the  evil  that  hath 
been  made  for  it. 

SHOES. 

His  servant,  Anas,  had  charge  of  his  shoes  and  his  water-pot. 
After  his  master's  death,  Anas  used  to  show  his  shoes.  They  were 
after  the  Hadramaut  pattern,  with  two  thongs.  In  the  year  100  or  i  [O 
A.  H.,  one  went  to  buy  shoes  at  Mecca,  and  tells  us  that  the  shoemaker 
offered  to  make  them  exactly  after  the  model  of  Mohammed's,  which,  he 
said,  he  had  seen  in  the  possession  of  Fatima,  granddaughter  of  Abbas. 
His  shoes  used  to  be  cobbled.  He  was  in  the  habit  of  praying  with  his 
shoes  on.  On  one  occasion,  having  taken  them  off  at  prayers,  all  the 
people  did  likewise,  but  Mohammed  told  them  there  was  no  necessity, 
for  he  had  merely  taken  off  his  own  because  Gabriel  had  apprised  htm 
that  there  was  some  dirty  substance  attaching  to  them  (cleanliness  being 
required  in  all  the  surroundings  of  prayer).  The  thongs  of  his  shoes 
once  broke,  and  they  mended  them  for  him  by  adding  a  new  piece ;  after 
the  service,  Mohammed  desired  his  shoes  to  be  taken  away  and  the 
thongs  restored  as  they  were ;  "For,"  said  he,  "I  was  distracted  at  prayer 
thereby." 

TOOTHPICKS. 

Ayesha  tells  us  that  Mohammed  never  lay  down  by  night  or  by  day 
but  on  waking  he  applied  the  toothpick  to  his  teeth  before  he  per- 
formed ablution.  He  used  it  so  much  as  to  wear  his  gums.  The  tooth- 
pick was  always  placed  conveniently  for  him  at  night,  so  that  when  he 
got  up  in  the  night  to  pray,  he  might  use  it  before  his  laudations.  One 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


285 


says  that  he  saw  him  with  the  toothpick  in  his  mouth,  and  that  he  kept 
saying  aa,  aa,  as  if  about  to  vomit.  His  toothpicks  were  made  of  the 
green  wood  of  the  palm  tree.    He  never  traveled  without  one. 

ARTICLES  OF  TOILET. 
He  very  frequently  oiled  his  hair,  poured  water  on  his  beard,  and 
applied  antimony  to  his  eyes. 

ARMOR. 

1  jur  sections  are  devoted  to  the  description  of  Mohammed's 
armor, — his  swords,  coats  of  mail,  shields,  lances  and  bows. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 
The  Prophet  used  to  snuff  simsin  (sesamum),  and  wash  his  hands  in 
a  decoction  of  the  wild  plum-tree.    When  he  was  afraid  of  forgetting 
any,  he  would  tie  a  thread  on  his  finger  or  his  ring. 

HORSES. 

The  first  horse  which  Mohammed  ever  possessed  was  one  he  pur- 
chased of  the  Bani  Fazara,  for  ten  owckeas  (ounces  of  silver) ;  and  he 
called  its  name  sakb  (running  water),  from  the  easiness  of  its  paces.  Mo- 
hammed was  mounted  on  it  at  the  battle  of  Ohod,  when  there  was  but 
one  other  horse  from  Medina  on  the  field.  He  had  also  a  horse  called 
Sabaha  (Shumjah) ;  he  raced  it  and  won,  and  he  was  greatly  rejoiced 
thereat.   He  had  a  third  horse,  named  Murtajis  (neighbor). 

RIDING  CAMELS. 

Besides  Al  Caswa  (al-Oaswa)_,  Mohammed  had  a  camel  called  Adhba 
(al-'Azba),  which  in  speed  outstripped  all  others.  Yet  one  day  an  Arab 
passed  it  when  at  its  fleetest  pace.  The  Moslems  were  chagrined  at 
this,  but  Mohammed  reproved  them,  saying:  "It  is  the  prophecy  of  the 
Lord,  that  whensoever  a  man  exalt  anything,  or  seek  to  exalt  it,  then  the 
Lord  putteth  down  the  same. 

MILCH  CAMELS. 
Mohammed  had  twenty  milch  camels,  the  same  that  were  plundered 
at  Al  Ghaba.  Their  milk  was  for  the  support  of  his  family ;  every  even- 
ing they  gave  two  large  skinsful.  Omm  Salma  relates :  "Our  chief 
food  when  we  lived  with  Mohammed  was  milk.  The  camels  used  to  be 
brought  from  Al  Ghaba  every  evening.  I  had  one  called  Aris,  and 
Ayesha,  one  called  Al  Samra.  The  herdman  fed  them  at  Al  Juania,  and 
brought  them  to  our  homes  in  the  evening.  There  was  also  one  for 
Mohammed. 


286 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


MILCH  FLOCKS. 

Mohammed  had  seven  goats  which  Omm  Ayman  used  to  tend  (this 
probably  refers  to  an  early  period  of  his  residence  at  Medina).  His  flocks 
grazed  at  Ohod  and  Himna  alternately,  and  were  brought  back  to  the 
house  of  that  wife  whose  turn  it  was  for  Mohammed  to  be  in  her  abode. 
A  favorite  goat  having  died,  the  Prophet  desired  its  skin  to  be  tanned. 

Mohammed  attached  a  peculiar  blessing  to  the  possession  of  goats. 
''There  is  no  house,"  he  would  say,  "possessing  a  goat,  but  a  blessing 
abideth  thereon ;  and  there  is  no  house  possessing  three  goats,  but  the 
angels  pass  the  night  there  praying  for  its  inmates  until  the  morning." 

SERVANTS. 

Fourteen  or  fifteen  persons  are  mentioned  who  served  the  Prophet 
at  various  times.    His  slaves  he  always  freed. 

HOUSES. 

Abdallah  ibu  Yazid  relates  that  he  saw  the  houses  in  which  the 
wives  of  the  Prophet  dwelt,  at  the  time  when  Osmar  ibu  Al  Aziz,  gov- 
ernor of  Medina  (about  A.  H.  100)  demolished  them.  They  were  built 
of  unburnt  bricks,  and  had  separate  apartments  made  of  palm-branches, 
daubed  (or  built  up)  with  mud ;  he  counted  nine  houses,  each  having 
separate  apartments,  in  the  space  extending  from  the  house  of  Ayesha 
and  the  gate  of  Mohammed,  to  the  house  of  Asma,  daughter  of  Hosein. 
Observing  the  dwellingplace  of  Omm  Salma,  he  questioned  her  grand- 
son concerning  it,  and  he  told  him  that  when  the  Prophet  was  absent  on 
the  expedition  to  Duma,  Omm  Salma  built  up  an  addition  to  her  house 
with  a  wall  of  unburnt  bricks.  When  Mohammed  returned,  he  went  in  to 
her,  and  asked  what  new  building  this  was.  She  replied,  "I  purposed 
O  Prophet,  to  shut  out  the  glances  of  men  thereby!"  Mohammed 
answered:  "O,  Omm  Salma!  verily,  the  most  unprofitable  thing  that 
eateth  up  the  wealth  of  the  Believer  is  building!"  A  citizen  of  Medina 
present  at  the  time,  confirmed  this  account,  and  added  that  the  curtains 
of  the  door  were  of  black  hair-cloth.  He  was  present,  he  said,  when 
the  dispatch  of  the  Caliph  Abd  al  Malik  (A.  H.  86-88)  was  read  aloud, 
commanding  that  these  houses  should  be  brought  within  the  area  of  the 
mosque,  and  he  never  witnessed  sorer  weeping  than  there  was  amongst 
the  people  that  day.  One  exclaimed:  "I  wish,  by  the  Lord!  that  they 
would  leave  these  houses  alone  thus  as  they  are ;  then  would  those  that 
spring  up  hereafter  in  Medina,  and  strangers  from  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
come  and  see  what  kind  of  building  sufficed  for  the  Prophet's  own  abode, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


287 


and  the  sight  thereof  would  deter  men  from  extravagance  and  pride." 

"There  were  four  houses  of  unburnt  bricks,  the  apartments  being 
of  palm-branches ;  and  five  houses  made-  of  palm-branches  built  up  with 
mud  and  without  any  separate  apartments.  Some  say  they  had  leather 
curtains  for  the  doors.    One  could  reach  the  roof  with  the  hand. 

"The  house  of  Haritha  (Harisah)  was  next  to  that  of  Mohammed. 
Now  whenever  Mohammed  took  to  himself  a  new  wife  he  added  another 
house  to  the  row,  and  Haritha  was  obliged  successively  to  remove  his 
house  and  to  build  on  the  space  beyond.  At  last  this  was  repeated  so 
often  that  the  Prophet  said  to  those  about  him :  'Verily,  it  shameth  me 
to  turn  Haritha  over  and  over  again  out  of  his  house.  " 

PROPERTIES. 

'  There  were  seven  gardens  which  Mukheirick,  the  Jew,  left  to  Mo- 
hammed. Omar  ibu  Al  Aziz,  the  Caliph,  said  that,  when  Governor  of 
Medina,  he  ate  of  the  fruit  of  these,  and  never  tasted  sweeter  dates.  Oth- 
ers say  that  these  gardens  formed  a  portion  of  the  confiscated  estates  of 
the  Bani  Nadhir.  They  were  afterwards  dedicated  perpetually  to  pious 
purposes. 

"Mohammed  had  three  other  wives : 

"I.  The  confiscated  lands  of  the  Bani  Nadhir.  The  produce  of 
these  was  appropriated  to  his  own  wants.  One  of  the  plats  was  called 
Mashruba  Omm  Ibrahim,  the  'summer  garden  of  (Mary)  the  mother  of 
Ibrahim,'  where  the  Prophet  used  to  visit  her. 

"II.  Fadak;  the  fruits  of  this  were  reserved  as  a  fund  of  indigent 
travelers. 

"HI.  The  fifth  share,  and  the  lands  received  by  capitulation,  in 
Kheibar.  This  was  divided  into  three  parts.  Two  were  devoted  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Moslems  generally  (i.  e.,  for  State  purposes) ;  the  proceeds 
of  the  third,  Mohammed  assigned  for  the  support  of  his  own  family;  and 
what  remained  over  he  added  to  the  fund  for  the  use  of  the  Moslems." 

THE  WIVES  OF  MOHAMMED. 

"The  pure  wives."  According  to  the  traditions,  Mohammed  took 
to  himself  eleven  lawful  wives,  and  two  concubines. 

(i)  Khadija,  a  Quraish  lady,  the  daughter  of  Khuwailid  ibu  Asad. 
She  was  a  rich  widow  lady,  who  had  been  twice  married.  She  was  mar- 
ried to  Mohammed  when  he  was  twenty-five  years  old,  and  she  was  forty 
years,  and  remained  his  only  wife  for  twenty-five  years,  until  she  died 
(A.  D.  619),  aged  65,  Mohammed  being  50  years  old.   She  bore  Moham- 


888 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


med  two  sons,  al-Qusim  and  'Abdu  'llah,  surnamed  at-Tahir  and  at- 
Taiyib,  and  four  daughters,  Zainab,  Ruyaiyah,  Fatimah,  and  Uramu 
Kulsum.    Of  these  children  only  Fatimah  survived  Mohammed. 

(2)  Saudah,  daughter  of  Zama  'ah,  the  widow  of  as-Sakran.  Mar- 
ried about  two  months  after  the  death  of  Khadija. 

(3)  Ayesha,  the  daughter  of  Abu  Bakr.  She  was  betrothed  when 
she  was  only  7  years  old,  and  was  married  at  10,  about  the  ninth  month 
after  the  flight  to  al-Madinah. 

(4)  Juwairiyah,  a  widow,  the  daughter  of  al-Haris  ibu  Abi  Zirar, 
the  chief  of  the  Bann  Mustalig.  Mohammed  ransomed  her  from  a  citi- 
zen who  had  fixed  her  ransom  at  nine  ounces  of  gold.  It  is  related  that 
Ayesha  said,  "No  woman  was  ever  a  greater  blessing  to  her  people 
than  this  Juwairiyah." 

(5)  Hafsah,  the  daughter  of  Omar.  She  was  the  widow  of  Khu- 
nais,  an  early  convert  to  Islam.  Mohammed  married  her  about  six 
months  after  her  former  husband's  death. 

(6)  Zainab,  the  daughter  of  Khugaimah,  the  widow  of  Mohammed's 
cousin  'Ubaidah,  who  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Badr.  She  was  called 
"Mother  of  the  Poor,"  Ummu  '1-Masakin,  on  account  of  her  care  of  des- 
titute converts.    She  died  before  Mohammed. 

(7)  Ummu  Salimah,  the  widow  of  Abu  Salimah,  one  of  the  Refu- 
gees, who  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Uhud,  and  afterwards  died  of 
his  wounds. 

(8)  Zainab,  the  daughter  of  Jahsh,  the  wife  of  Mohammed's  adopted 
son  Zeid.  Zeid  divorced  her  to  please  the  Prophet.  She  was  (being  the 
wife  of  an  adopted  son)  unlawful  to  him,  but  Sura  xxxiii  .ifi  was  pro- 
duced to  settle  the  difficulty. 

(9)  Safiyah,  daughter  of  Hayi  ibu  Akhtab,  the  widow  of  Kinanah, 
the  Khaibar  chief,  who  was  cruelly  put  to  death.  It  was  said  that  Mo- 
hammed wished  to  divorce  her,  but  she  begged  that  her  turn  might  be 
given  to  Ayesha. 

(10)  Ummu  Habibah,  the  daughter  of  Abu  Sufian  and  the  widow 
of  'Ubaidu  'llah,  one  of  the  "Four  Enquirers,"  who  after  emigrating  as  a 
Moslem  to  Abyssinia  had  embraced  Christianity  there,  and  died  in  the 
profession  of  that  faith. 

(11)  Maimunah,  the  daughter  of  al-Haris  and  widowed  kinswoman 
of  Mohammed  and  the  sister-in-law  of  al-'Abbas.  She  is  said  to  have 
been  51  years  of  age  when  she  married  Mohammed. 

Mohammed's  concubines  were : 

(1)   Mary  the  Copt,  a  Christian  slave  girl  sent  to  Mohammed  by  al- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


389 


Mugangis,  the  Roman  Governor  in  Egypt.  She  became  the  mother  of 
a  son  by  Mohammed,  named  Ibrahim,  who  died  young.  • 

(2)  Rihanah,  a  Jewess,  whose  husband  had  perished  in  the  massa- 
cre of  the  Banu  Quraizah.  She  declined  the  summons  to  conversion, 
and  continued  a  Jew;  but  it  is  said  she  embraced  Islam  before  her 
death. 

At  the  time  of  Mohammed's  death  he  had  nine  wives  and  two  con- 
cubines living  (Sahibu  '1-Bukhari,  p.  798).  Khadija  and  Zainab  bint 
Khuzaimah  having  died  before  him. 

According  to  Shi'ahs,  Mohammed  had,  in  all,  twenty  wives.  Eight 
of  these  never  consummated  the  marriage.  Their  names  are  Khadija, 
Sandah,  Hind  (or  Ummu  Salimah),  Ayesha,  Hafsah,  Zainab  bint  Juhsh, 
Ramalah  bint  Abi  Sufian  (or  Ummu  Habibah),  Maimunah,  Zainab  bint 
'Umais,  Jawairiyah  bint  al-Haris  of  the  Banu  Mustalig,  Safiyah,  Khaulah 
bint  Hakim,  and  Ummiani,  a  sister  to  'Ali.  Two  were  bondwomen: 
Mariyatu  '1-Qibtiyah  and  Rihanah. 

Resignation  to  the  will  of  God.  The  word  generally  used  by  Mo- 
hammedans themselves  for  their  religion.  'Abdu  '1-Hagg  says  it  im- 
plies submission  to  the  divine  will;  and  Mohammed  explained  it  to  men 
the  observance  of  the  five  duties :  (1)  Bearing  witness  that  there  is  but 
God ;  (2)  reciting  the  daily  prayers  ;  (3)  giving  the  legal  alms  ;  (4)  observ- 
ing the  Ramazan  or  month's  fast;  (5)  making  the  Pilgrimage  to  Makkah 
once  in  a  lifetime. 

There  are  three  words  used  by  Mohammedan  writers  for  religion, 
namely :  Din,  Millah,  and  Mazhab ;  and  in  the  Kitabu  't-Ta'rifat,  the 
difference  implied  in  these  words  is  said  to  be  as  follows :  Din,  as  it 
stands  in  its  relation  to  God,  e.  g.,  Dinu'llah,  the  religion  of  God;  Mil- 
lah, as  it  stands  in  relation  to  a  prophet  or  lawgiver,  e.  g.  Millatu  Ibra- 
him, the  religion  of  Abraham;  and  Mazhab,  as  it  stands  in  relation  to 
the  divines  of  Islam,  e.  g.  Mazhab  Hunan,  the  religion  or  religious  teach- 
ing of  Abu  Hanifah.  The  expression  Din,  however,  is  of  general  appli- 
cation. 

Those  who  profess  the  religion  of  Islam  are  called  Musselmans, 
Moslems,  or  Mu'mins. 

Ahlu  '1-Kitab,  "The  people  of  the  Book,"  is  used  for  Mohammedans, 
Jews,  and  Christians. 

The  Din,  or  religion  of  the  Muslim,  is  divided  into  Iman,  or 
"Faith,"  and  'Amal,  or  "Practice." 

Faith  consists  in  the  acceptance  of  six  articles  of  belief: 

1.  The  Unity  of  God. 


290 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


2.  The  Angels. 

3.  The  Inspired  Books. 

4.  The  Inspired  Prophets. 

5.  The  Day  of  Judgment. 

6.  The  Decrees  of  God. 

Practical  religion  consists  in  the  observance  of — ■ 

1.  The  recital  of  the  Creed. — "There  is  no  deity  but  God;  and  Mo- 
hammed is  the  Prophet  of  God." 

2.  The  five  stated  periods  of  prayer. 

3.  The  thirty  days'  fast  in  the  month  Ramazan. 

4.  The  payment  of  Zakat,  or  the  legal  alms. 

5.  The  Hajj,  or  Pilgrimage  to  Makkah. 

A  belief  in  these  six  articles  of  faith,  and  the  observance  of  these 
five  practical  duties  constitute  Islam.  He  who  thus  believes  and  acts 
is  called  a  Mu'min  or  "believer;"  but  he  who  rejects  any  article  of 
faith  or  practice  is  a  Kafir,  or  "infidel." 

Mohammedan  theology,  which  is  very  extensive,  is  divided  into — 

1.  The  Koran  and  its  commentaries. 

2.  The  Traditions  and  their  commentaries. 

3.  Usui,  or  expositions  on  the  principles  of  exegesis. 

4.  Agaid,  or  expositions  of  scholastic  theology  founded  on  the  six 
articles  of  faith. 

5.  Figh,  or  works  on  both  civil  and  religious  law. 
Mohammedism  is,  therefore,  a  system  which  affords  a  large  field  of 

patient  study  and  research,  and  much  of  its  present  energy  and  vitality 
is  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that,  in  all  parts  of  Islam,  there  are  in  the 
various  mosques  students  who  devote  their  whole  lives  to  the  study  of 
Moslem  divinity. 

The  two  leading  principles  of  Islam  are  those  expressed  in  its  well- 
known  creed,  or  kalimah,  namely,  a  belief  in  the  absolute  unity  of  the 
Divine  Being,  and  in  the  mission  of  Mohammed  as  the  messenger  of  the 
Almighty. 

GOOD  WORKS  (Arabic  as-Salihat). 

According  to  the  preaching  of  the  Koran,  good  works  without  faith 
will  not  save  from  the  torments  of  hell. 

Sura  xviii  1103-5:  "Shall  we  tell  you  who  are  they  that  have  lost 
their  labor  most ;  whose  efforts  in  the  present  life  have  been  mistaken, 
and  who  deemed  that  what  they  did  was  right?  They  are  those  who 
believed  not  in  the  signs  of  the  Lord,  or  that  they  should  ever  meet  Him. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


291 


Vain,  therefore,  are  their  works ;  and  no  weight  will  we  allow  them  on 
the  day  of  resurrection." 

Faith  in  the  above  is  belief  in  the  mission  of  Mohammed ;  all'  Mos- 
lems being  considered  in  a  state  of  grace,  no  matter  what  their  actions 
may  be.  With  reference  to  the  good  deeds  of  Moslems,  the  following 
is  the  teaching  of  Mohammed,  as  recorded  in  the  Traditions  : 

"When  a  man  is  brought  to  Islam  and  he  performs  it  well,  God 
covers  all  his  former  sins,  and  he  gets  ten  rewards  for  every  good  act, 
whereas  the  reward  of  misdeeds  is  as  one  to  one,  unless  God  passes  that 
over  likewise." 

"There  are  three  persons-  whose  actions  are  not  written ;  one  a  per- 
son asleep  until  he  awakes ;  the  second,  a  boy  not  arrived  at  puberty ; 
the  third,  a  madman  until  he  recovers  his  reason." 

"Verily,  God  recordeth  both  the  good  deeds  and  the  evil  deeds.  He 
who  has  proposed  to  do  evil  and  did  not  do  it,  for  him  God  recordeth 
one  perfectly  good  deed.  And  he  who  intended  to  do  good  and  put  his 
intentions  into  practice,  for  him  God  recordeth  from  ten  to  seven  hun- 
dred good  deeds  (according  to  their  merits).  And  he  who  intended  to 
do  evil  but  did  it  not,  God  recordeth  one  good  act ;  but  he  who  intendeth 
to  do  evil  and  doeth  it,  for  him  God  recordeth  one  evil  deed." 

"Verily,  the  condition  of  that  person  who  does  evil  and  after  that 
good  deeds,  is  like  the  condition  of  a  man  with  light  armor  on,  which 
has  troubled  him.  He  does  one  good-  deed  and  the  rings  of  the  armor 
become  open.  He  does  another  good  deed,  and  the  armor  falls  from 
his  body." 

"Verily,  there  was  a  man  amongst  those  who  were  before  you  to 
whom  the  angel  of  death  came  to  take  his  soul,  and  he  was  asked :  'Have 
you  done  any  good  act?'  He  said  in  answer,  T  do  not  remember  that 
I  have  done  any  good.'  It  was  said  to  him,  'Look  well  into  yourself, 
and  consider  if  you  have  done  any  good  work?'  He  said,  T  do  not  find 
any  good  in  myself,  except  that  I  used  to  buy  and  sell  in  the  world  and 
used  to  claim  my  right  from  the  rich,  but  allowed  them  their  leisure  to 
pay  me  when  they  liked,  and  I  forgave  the  poor.'  Then  God  brought 
that  man  into  Paradise." 

"An  adulteress  was  forgiven,  who  passed  by  a  dog  at  a  well,  and 
the  dog  was  holding  out  his  tongue  from  thirst,  which  was  near  killing 
him.  The  woman  drew  off  her  boot  and  tied  it  to  the  end  of  her  veil, 
and  drew  water  for  the  dog,  and  gave  him  to  drink,  and  she  was  for- 
given on  account  of  that  act.  It  was  asked  the  Prophet,  'Verily,  are 
there  rewards  for  our  doing  good  to  quadrupeds,  and  giving  them  water 


292 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


to  drink?'  He  said,  'There  are  rewards  for  benefiting  every  animal  hav- 
ing a  moist  liver.'  " 

"Your  smiling  in  your  brother's  face  is  alms;  and  your  exhorting 
mankind  to  virtuous  deeds  is  alms ;  and  your  prohibiting  the  forbidden 
is  alms;  and  your  showing  men  the  road  when  they  lose  it  is  alms;  and 
your  assisting  the  blind  is  alms ;  and  your  removing  stones,  thorns,  and 
bones,  which  are  inconvenient  to  man  is  alms;  and  your  pouring  water 
from  your  bucket  into  that  of  your  brother  is  alms  for  you." 

FASTING  (Arabic  Saum). 

Persian  Rozah.  Fasting  was  highly  commended  by  Mohammed 
as  an  atonement  for  sin.  The  following  are  the  fasts  founded  upon  the 
example  of  the  Prophet  and  observed  by  devout  Moslems : 

(1)  The  thirty  days  of  the  month  of  Ramazan.  This  month's  fast 
is  regarded  as  a  divine  institution,  being  enjoined  in  the  Koran  and  is 
therefore  compulsory. 

(2)  The  day  'Ashura.'  The  tenth  day  of  the  month  Muharram. 
This  is  a  voluntary  fast,  but  it  is  pretty  generally  observed  by  all  Mos- 
lems, for  Abu  Qatadah  relates  that  the  Prophet  said  he  hoped  that  the 
fast  of  'Ashura'  would  cover  the  sins  of  the  coming  year. 

(3)  The  six  days  following  the  Tdu-'l-Fitr.  Abu  Aiyub  relates  that 
the  Prophet  said,  "The  person  who  fasts  the  month  of  Ramazan  and 
follows  it  up  with  six  days  of  the  month  of  Shawwal  will  obtain  the  re- 
wards of  a  continued  fast." 

(4)  The  Monday  and  Thursday  of  every  week  are  recommended  as 
fast  days,  as  distinguished  from  the  Christian  fast  of  Wednesday.  Abu 
Hurairah  relates  that  the  Prophet  said,  "The  actions  of  God's  servants 
are  represented  at  the  throne  of  God  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays." 
These  days  are  only  observed  by  strictly  religious  Moslems. 

(5)  The  month  of  Sha'ban.  Ayesha  relates  that  "the  Prophet  used 
sometimes  to  fast  part  of  this  month  and  sometimes  the  whole."  It  is 
seldom  observed  in  the  present  day. 

(6)  The  13th,  14th,  and  15th  of  each  month.  These  days  are  termed 
al-ayyamu  '1-biz,  i.  e.  the  bright  days,  and  were  observed  by  Moham- 
med himself  as  fasts.   These  are  generally  observed  by  devout  Moslems. 

(7)  Fasting  alternate  days,  which  Mohammed  said  was  the  fast 
observed  by  David,  King  of  Israel. 

In  the  Traditions  fasting  is  commended  by  Mohammed  in  the  fol- 
lowing words : 

"Every  good  act  that  a  man  does  shall  receive  from  ten  to  seven 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


393 


hundred  rewards,  but  the  rewards  of  fasting  are  beyond  bounds.,  for  fast- 
ing is  for  God  alone,  and  He  will  give  its  rewards." 

"He  who  fasts  abandons  the  cravings  of  his  appetites  for  God's 
sake." 

"There  are  two  pleasures  in  fasting,  one  when  the  person  who  fasts 
breaks  it,  and  the  other  in  the  next  world,  when  he  meets  his  Lord. 
The  very  smell  of  the  mouth  of  a  keeper  of  a  fast  is  more  agreeable  to 
God  than  the  smell  of  a  musk." 

"Fasting  is  a  shield." 

"When  anyone  of  you  fast  utter  no  bad  words,  nor  raise  your  voice 
in  strife.  If  anyone  abuse  one  who  is  fasting,  let  him  refrain  from  re- 
plying; let  him  say  that  he  is  keeping  a  fast." 

HIJRAH. 

(i)  The  departure  of  Mohammed  from  Makkah.  (2)  The  Moslem 
era.  (3)  The  act  of  a  Moslem  leaving  a  country  under  infidel  rule.  (4) 
Fleeing  from  sin. 

The  day  of  Mohammed's  flight  from  Makkah  was  the  fourth  day  of 
the  first  month  of  Rabi,  which  by  the  calculation  of  M.  Caussin  de  Per- 
ceval, was  June  20th,  A.  D.  622.  The  Hijrah,  or  the  era  of  the  "Hegira," 
was  instituted  seven  years  later  by  the  Khalifah  Omar,  which  dates 
from  the  first  day  of  the  first  lunar  month  of  the  year,  viz.,  Muharram, 
which  day  in  the  year  when  the  era  was  established  fell  on  Thursday, 
the  15th  of  July,  A.  D.  622.  But  although  Omar  instituted  the  official 
era,  according  to  at-Tabari,  the  custom  of  referring  to  events  as  hap- 
pening before  or  after  the  Hijrah  originated  with  Mohammed  himself. 

The  Persian  era  of  Yezdegird  commenced  on  June  16th,  A.  D. 
632,  or  ten  years  later  than  the  Hijrah. 

THE  YEAR  OF  ELEPHANT. 

The  year  in  which  Mohammed  was  born.  Being  the  year  in  which 
Abrahatu  '1-Ashram,  an  Abyssinian  Christian  and  Viceroy  of  the  King 
of  San'a'  in  Yemen  marched  with  a  large  army  and  a  number  of  ele- 
phants upon  Makkah,  with  the  intention  of  destroying  the  Ka'bah.  He 
was  defeated  and  his  army  destroyed  in  so  sudden  a  manner  as  to  give 
rise  to  the  legend  embodied  in  one  of  the  Suras  of  the  Koran,  known 
as  the  Chapter  of  the  Elephant. 

RAMAZAN. 

The  ninth  month  of  the  Mohammedan  year  is  observed  as  a 
strict  fast  from  dawn  to  sunset  of  each  day  in  the  month.    The  word 


294 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Ramazan  is  derived  from  ramz,  "to  burn."  The  month  is  said  to  have 
been  so  called  either  because  it  used  to  occur  in  the  hot  season,  or  be- 
cause the  month's  fast  is  supposed  to  burn  away  the  sins  of  men. 

The  observance  of  this  month  is  one  of  the  five  pillars  of  practice 
in  the  Moslem  religion  and  its  excellence  is  much  extolled  by  Moham- 
med, who  said  that  during  Ramazan,  "the  gates  of  Paradise  are  open, 
and  the  gates  of  hell  are  shut,  and  the  devils  are  chained  by  the  leg,  and 
only  those  who  observe  it  will  be  permitted  to  enter  at  the  gate  of 
heaven  called  Raiyan."  Those  who  keep  the  fast  "will  be  pardoned  all 
their  past  venial  sins." 

The  express  injunctions  regarding  the  observance  of  this  month  are 
given  in  the  Koran,  Sura  ii  :i79-i84: 

It  must  be  kept  by  every  Moslem,  except  the  sick,  the  infirm,  and 
pregnant  women,  or  women  who  are  nursing  their  children.  Young 
children,  who  have  not  reached  the  age  of  puberty,  are  exempt,  and 
also  travelers  on  a  journey  of  more  than  three  days.  In  the  case  of  a 
sick  person  or  traveler,  the  month's  fast  must  be  kept  as  soon  as  these 
are  able  to  perform  it.    This  act  is  called  Qaza,  or  expiration. 

The  fast  is  extremely  rigorous  and  mortifying,  and  when  the  Ram- 
azan happens  to  fall  in  the  summer  and  the  days  are  long,  the  prohibi- 
tion even  to  drink  a  drop  of  water  to  slake  the  thirst  is  a  very  great 
hardship.  Mohammed  speaks  of  this  religious  exercise  as  "easy,*  as 
most  probably  it  was  when  compared  with  the  ascetic  spirit  of  the  times. 
Sir  William  Muir  thinks  Mohammed  did  not  forsee  that,  when  he 
changed  the  Jewish  intercalary  year  for  the  lunar  year,  the  fast  would 
become  a  grievous  burden  instead  of  an  easy  one ;  but  Mohammedan 
lexicographers  say  the  fast  was  established  when  the  month  occurred  in 
the  hot  season. 

During  the  month  of  Ramazan  twenty  additional  rak'ahs,  or  forms 
of  prayer  are  repeated  after  the  night-prayer.    These  are  called  Tarawih. 

Devout  Moslems  seclude  themselves  for  some  time  in  the  mosque 
during  this  month,  and  abstain  from  all  worldly  conversation,  engaging 
themselves  in  the  reading  of  the  Koran.  This  seclusion  is  called  Ftikaf. 
Mohammed  is  said  to  have  usually  observed  this  custom  in  the  last  ten 
days  of  Ramazan.  The  Lailatu  '1-Oadr,  on  the  "night  of  power,"  is 
said  by  Mohammed  to  be  either  on  the  twenty-first,  twenty-third,  or 
twenty-fifth,  or  twenty-seventh,  or  twenty-ninth  of  the  month  of  Ram- 
azan. The  exact  date  of  this  solemn  night  has  not  been  discovered  by 
any  but  the  Prophet  himself,  and  some  of  the  Companions,  although 
the  learned  doctors  believe  it  to  be  on  the  twenty-seventh  of  this  night. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


295 


The  following  sayings  of  Mohammed  regarding  the  fast  of  Ramazan 
are  found  in  the  Traditions  : 

"The  difference  between  our  fast  and  that  of  the  people  of  the  book 
(i.  e.  Jews  and  Christians)  is  eating  only  before  the  first  dawn  of  day 
(and  not  afterwards)." 

"Keep  not  the  fast  till  you  see  the  new  moon,  and  if  the  moon  be 
hidden  from  you  by  clouds,  count  the  days."  And  in  one  Tradition  it 
is  thus : 

"A  month  is  twenty-nine  nights,  then  keep  not  the  fast  till  you 
see  the  new  moon,  which,  if  she  be  hid  from  you  by  clouds,  then  com- 
plete thirty  days." 

"When  the  darkness  of  the  night  advances  from  the  west  and  the 
day  departs  from  the  east,  and  the  sun  sets,  then  the  keeper  of  the  fast 
may  begin  to  eat." 

"There  are  eight  doors  in  Paradise,  and  one  is  called  Raiyan,  by 
which  only  the  keepers  of  the  fast  shall  enter." 

The  Ramazan  begins  with  the  new  moon,  but  sometimes  in  some 
parts  of  the  land  it  is  cloudy  and  they  cannot  see  the  moon.  So  men 
will  be  appointed  by  the  government  throughout  all  the  empire  to  watch 
carefully  for  the  new  moon,  sometimes  from  the  peaks  of  mountains. 
They  will  fast  from  one  hour  before  sunrise  to  one-half  hour  after  sun- 
set, or  till  it  becomes  too  dark  for  a  man  to  discriminate  between  red 
and  black  thread.  During  this  time  they  abstain  from  eating,  drinking 
and  smoking.  The  poor  class  work  till  noon.  The  rich  do  not  work 
at  all.  The  most  of  the  day  is  spent  in  reciting  the  Koran,  praying  in  the 
street,  for  the  Moslems  might  long  to  eat  also,  or  even  take  a  taste  and 
thus  break  their  fast. 

They  do  not  converse  much  in  the  day,  but  wear  a  sad  counte- 
nance. They  do  not  allow  a  Christian  to  speak  to  them.  At  morning 
and  evening  in  the  cities  a  cannon  is  fired  for  the  beginning  and  ending 
of  the  fast.  During  this  month  much  alms  are  given.  The  lords  and 
princes  especially  send  meals  from  their  table.  They  believe  fasting  and 
alms-giving  will  secure  absolute  forgiveness  of  sins  and  admittance  to 
heaven.  The  night  is  changed  to  a  feast.  They  eat  and  drink  and  con- 
verse till  twelve  o'clock.  They  then  retire,  but  are  up  again  at  three  arid 
eat  and  drink  till  one  hour  before  sunrise. 

Death  among  them  occurs  most  often  in  that  month  because  many 
eat  too  much.  So  many  different  meals  hurt  their  stomach  and  they 
fall  sick  and  die. 

While  this  fasting  is  easy  for  the  rich,  as  they  can  sleep  all  day 


896 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


and  keep  awake  all  night,  it  is  a  heavy  burden  to  the  poor,  who  must 
work  during  the  day,  especially  when  the  fasting  comes  in  the  farming 
season.  The  month,  however,  in  course  of  time  has  been  changed. 
They  are  also  strictly  prohibited  from  doing  much  talking  in  this  month 
of  fasting  that  they  may  not  obtain  much  air. 

Many  observe  the  fast  faithfully,  but  often  through  fear  of  persecu- 
tion. 

FOOD  (Arabic  ta'am). 

The  injunctions  contained  in  the  Koran  respecting  food  are  as  fol- 
lows :  "O  ye  who  believe !  eat  of  the  good  things  with  which  we  have 
supplied  you,  and  give  God  thanks  if  ye  are  His  worshipers.  Only 
that  which  dieth  of  itself,  and  blood,  and  swine's  flesh,  and  that  over 
which  any  other  name  than  that  of  God  hath  been  invoked,  has  God 
forbidden  you.  But  he  who  shall  partake  of  them  by  constraint,  without 
desire,  or  of  necessity,  then  no  sin  shall  be  upon  him.  Verily,  God  is 
forgiving  and  merciful."  Sura  v.  92:  "O  Believers!  wine  and  games 
of  chance,  and  statues,  and  divining  arrows  are  only  an  abomination  of 
Satan's  work  !   Avoid  them  that  ye  may  prosper." 

The  other  injunctions  concerning  food  are  found  in  the  Traditions 
and  sayings  of  Mohammed. 

No  animal,  except  fish  and  locusts,  is  lawful  food  unless  it  be 
slaughtered  according  to  the  Mohammedan  law,  namely,  by  drawing 
the  knife  across  the  throat  and  cutting  the  windpipe,  the  carotid  arteries, 
and  the  gullet,  repeating  at  the  same  time  the  words  "Bi'smi'llahi,  Allahu 
akbar,"  i.  e.,  "In  the  name  of  God;  God  is  great."  A  clean  animal,  so 
slaughtered,  becomes  lawful  food  for  Moslem,  whether  slaughtered  by 
Jews,  Christians,  or  Mohammedans,  but  animals  slaughtered  by  either  an 
idolater,  or  an  apostate  from  Islam,  is  not  lawful.  Zabh,  or  the  slaying 
of  animals,  is  of  two  kinds :  Ikhtiqari,  or  of  choice  and  Iztirari,  or  of 
necessity.  The  former  being  the  slaughtering  of  animals  in  the  name 
of  God,  the  latter  being  the  slaughter  effected  by  a  wound,  as  in  shooting 
birds  or  animals,  in  which  case  the  words  Bi'smi  'llahi,  Allahu  akbar 
must  be  said  at  the  time  of  the  discharge  of  the  arrow  from  the  bow  or 
the  shot  from  the  gun. 

According  to  the  Hidayah,  all  quadrupeds  that  seize  their  prey 
with  their  teeth  and  all  birds  which  seize  it  with  their  talons,  are  unlaw- 
ful, because  the  Prophet  has  prohibited  mankind  from  eating  them. 
Hyenas,  foxes,  elephants,  weasels,  pelicans,  kites,  carrion  crows,  ravens, 
crocodiles,  otters,  asses,  mules,  wasps,  and  in  general  all  insects,  are  for- 
bidden. 


'RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


207 


The  prohibition  of  wine  in  the  Koran  under  the  word  khamr  is  held 
to  exclude  all  things  which  have  an  intoxicating  tendency,  such  as 
opium,  chars,  bhang,  and  tobacco. 

A  Moslem  can  have  no  religious  scruples  to  eat  with  a  Christian, 
as  long  as  the  food  eaten  is  of  lawful  kind.  Saiyid  Ahmad  Khan  Baha- 
dar,  C.  S.  I.,  has  written  a  treatise  proving  that  Mohammedans  can  eat 
with  the  Ahl-i-Kitab,  namely,  Jews  or  Christians.  The  Mohammedans 
will  not  eat  food  cooked  by  idolators,  refuse  to  touch  that  cooked  either 
by  Europeans  or  Christians ;  and  they  refuse  to  allow  Christians  to  draw 
water  from  the  public  wells. 

EATING. 

According  to  the  Traditions,  Mohammedans  have  been  enjoined  by 
their  Prophet  to  eat  in  God's  name,  to  return  thanks,  to  eat  with  their 
right  hand,  and  with  their  shoes  off,  and  to  lick  the  plate  when  the  meal 
is  finished.  The  following  are  some  of  Mohammed's  precepts  on  the 
subject : 

The  Devil  has  power  over  that  food  which  is  eaten  without  remem- 
bering God." 

"Repeat  the  name  of  God.  Eat  with  the  right  hand  and  eat  from 
before  you." 

"When  a  man  comes  into  a  house  at  meal-time,  and  remembers  the 
name  of  God,  the  devil  says  to  his  followers,  'There  is  no  place  here  for 
you  and  me  tonight,  nor  is  there  any  supper  for  us.'  " 

"When  any  one  eats  he  must  not  wash  his  fingers  until  he  has  first 
licked  them." 

"Whoever  eats  a  dish  and  licks  it  afterwards,  the  dish  intercedes 
with  God  for  him." 

"When  victuals  are  placed  before  you  eat  them  with  your  shoes 
off,  because  taking  off  your  shoes  will  ease  your  feet."  ('Abdu  '1-Hagg 
adds,  "And  do  it  out  of  respect  to  the  food.") 

"Whoever  eats  from  a  plate  and  licks  it  afterwards  the  dish  says  of 
him,  'May  God  free  you  from  hell  as  you  have  freed  me  from  the  devil's 
licking  me.'  " 

Qatadah  says  that  Anas  said :  "The  Prophet  did  not  eat  of  a  table,, 
as  is  the  manner  of  proud  men  who  do  it  to  avoid  bending  their  backs.'^ 

The  following  directions  are  given  for  eating  by  Fagir  Mohammed 
As'ad,  the  author  of  the  Akhlag-i-Jalali : 

First  of  all  he  should  wash  his  hands,  mouth  and  nose.  Before  be- 
ginning he  should  say,  "In  the  name  of  God"  (Bismillah) :  and.  arfter 


298 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ending  he  must  say,  "Glory  to  God"  (Al-hamdu  lillah).  He  is  not  to 
be  in  a  hurry  to  begin,  unless  he  is  the  master  of  the  feast ;  he  must  not 
dirty  his  hands,  of  clothes,  or  the  table  linen;  he  must  not  eat  with  more 
than  three  fingers,  nor  open  his  mouth  wide;  not  take  large  mouttisful, 
nor  swallow  them  hastily,  nor  yet  keep  them  too  long  unswallowed.  He 
must  not  suck  his  fingers  in  the  course  of  eating;  but  after  he  has 
eaten,  he  may,  or  rather  ought,  as  there  is  scripture  warrant  for  it. 

"Let  him  not  look  from  dish  to  dish,  nor  smell  the  food,  nor  pick 
and  choose  it.  If  there  should  be  one  dish  better  than  the  rest,  let  him 
not  be  greedy  on  his  own  account,  but  let  him  offer  it  to  others.  He 
must  not  spill  the  grease  upon  his  fingers,  or  so  as  to  wet  his  bread  and 
salt.  He  must  not  eye  his  comrades  in  the  midst  of  his  mouthsful.  Let 
him  eat  from  what  is  next  him,  unless  of  fruit,  which  is  allowable  to  eat 
from  every  quarter.  What  he  has  once  put  into  his  mouth  (such  as  bones, 
etc.),  he  must  not  replace  it  upon  his  bread,  nor  upon  the  tablecloth ; 
if  a  bone  has  found  its  way  there,  let  him  remove  it  unseen.  Let  him  be- 
ware of  revolting  gestures,  and  of  letting  anything  drop  from  his  mouth 
into  the  cup.  Let  him  so  behave  that,  if  any  one  should  wish  to  eat  the 
relics  of  his  repast,  there  may  be  nothing  to  revolt  him. 

"Where  he  is  a  guest  he  must  stay  his  hands  sooner  than  the  master 
of  the  feast ;  and  whenever  the  rest  discontinue  eating,  he  must  act  in 
concert  with  them,  except  he  be  in  his  own  house,  or  some  other  where 
he  constitutes  part  of  the  family.  Where  he  is  himself  the  host,  he  must 
not  continue  eating  when  the  rest  have  stayed  their  hands,  so  that  some- 
thing may  be  left  for  any  one  who  chances  to  fancy  it. 

"If  he  has  occasion  to  drink  in  the  course  of  his  meal,  let  him  do  it 
softly,  that  no  noise  in  his  throat  or  mouth  may  be  audible  to  others. 
He  must  not  pick  his  teeth  in  the  view  of  the  company,  nor  swallow 
what  his  tongue  may  extract  from  between  them;  and  so  of  what  may 
be  extracted  by  the  toothpick,  let  him  throw  it  aside  so  as  to  disgust 
no  one. 

'"When  the  time  comes  for  washing  his  hands,  let  him  be  exceed- 
ingly careful  in  cleasmg  his  nails  and  fingers.  Similar  must  be  his  par- 
ticularity in  washing  his  lips,  mouth  and  nostrils.  He  must  not  void 
his  rheum  into  the  basin;  even  the  water  in  which  his  mouth  has  been 
rinsed,  let  him  cover  with  his  hand,  as  he  throws  it  away. 
^  "Neither  must  he  take  the  turn  from  others  in  washing  his  hands, 
when  he  is  master  of  the  entertainment,  and  then  he  should  be 
the  n-t  to  wash." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


299 


B  ISM  ILL  AH. 

Lit.  "In  the  name  of  God."  An  ejaculation  frequently  used  at 
the  commencement  of  any  undertaking.  There  are  two  forms  of  the 
Bismillah : 

1.  Bi-'smi  'llahi  'r-rahmani  'r-rahim,  i.  e.  "In  the  name  of  God,  the 
Compassionate,  the  Merciful."  This  used  at  the  commencement  of 
meals,  putting  on  new  clothes,  beginning  any  new  work,  and  at  the 
commencement  of  books.  It  occurs  at  the  head  of  every  chapter  or  Sura 
in  the  Koran,  with  the  exception  of  the  IXth. 

2.  Bi-'smi  'llahi  'llahi  '1-akbar,  i.  e.  "In  the  name  of  God,  God  the 
Most  Great."  Used  at  the  time  of  slaughtering  of  animals,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  battle,  etc.,  the  attribute  of  mercy  being  omitted  on  such 
occasions. 

The  formula  Bi'smi  'llahi  'r-rahmani  'r-rahim  is  of  Jewish  origin.  It 
was  in  the  first  instance  taught  the  Quraish  by  Umaiyah  of  Ta'if,  the 
poet,  who  was  contemporary  but  somewhat  older  than  Mohammed,  and 
who  , during  mercantile  journeys  into  Arabia  Petraea  and  Syria  had  made 
himself  acquainted  with  the  sacred  books  and  doctrines  of  Jews  and 
Christians. 


The  man  to  the  right  is  Mohammed,  the  one  to  the  left  is  the  Devil,  who  intends  to 
sweep  Mohammed  away,  who  stands  close  to  him,  to  hell,  but  Mohammed  interferes,  saying: 
'•  You  can  not  do  so,  for  Mohammed  has  repeated  my  creed,  so  there  is  no  hell  for  Moham. 
med. "  The  person  standing  on  the  left  is  awaiting  his  trial,  the  person  in  the  center  is 
being  judged,  while  the  two  below  were  condemned  to  go  to  hell 


300 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


CREED. 

The  Mohammedan  Creed,  or  Kalimatu'sh-sha-hadah  (shortly  Kali- 
mah)  is  the  well-known  formula:  "I  testify  that  there  is  no  deity  but 
God,  and  Mohammed  is  the  Apostle  of  God." 

It  is  the  belief  of  Mohammedans  that  the  first  part  of  this  creed, 
which  is  called  the  naf'i  wa  isbat,  namely,  "There  is  no  deity  but  God," 
has  been  the  expression  of  belief  of  every  prophet  since  the  days  of 
Adam,  and  that  the  second  portion  has  been  changed  according  to  the 
dispensation ;  for  example,  that  in  the  days  of  Moses  it  would  be : 
"There  is  no  deity  but  God,  and  Moses  is  the  Converser  with  God." 
In  the  Christian  dispensation  it  was :  "There  is  no  deity  but  God,  and 
Jesus  is  the  Spirit  of  God." 

Jabir  relates  that  Mohammed  said  "the  keys  of  Paradise  are  bearing 
witness  that  there  is  no  deity  but  God." 

The  recital  of  the  Kalimah,  or  Creed,  is  the  first  of  five  pillars  of 
practical  religion  in  Islam ;  and  when  any  one  is  converted  to  Islam  he 
is  required  to  repeat  this  formula,  and  the  following  are  the  conditions 
required  of  e,very  Moslem  with  reference  to  it : 

1.  That  it  shall  be  repeated  aloud,  at  .least  once  in  a  lifetime. 

2.  That  the  meaning  of  it  shall  be  fully  understood. 

3.  That  it  shall  be  believed  in  "by  the  heart." 

4.  That  it  shall  be  professed  until  death.  ■ 

5.  That  it  shall  be  recited  correctly. 

6.  That  it  shall  be  always  professed  and  declared  without  hesitation. 

GOD. 

The  name  of  the  Creator  of  the  Universe  in  the  Koran  is  Allah, 
which  is  the  title  given  to  the  Supreme  Being  by  Mohammedans  of 
every  race  and  language. 

Allah  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  ilah,  a  deity  or  god,  with  the 
addition  of  the  definite  article  al-Al-ilah,  "the  God"— or  according  to 
some  authorities,  it  is  from  lah,  i.  e.,  Al-lah,  "the  secret  one."  But  Abu 
Hanifah  says  that  just  as  the  essence  of  God  is  unchangeable,  so  is  His 
name,  and  that  Allah  has  ever  been  the  name  of  the  Eternal  Being. 

These  names  (or  attributes)  are  given  as  follows: 

1.  Ar-Rahman  (the  Merciful). 

2.  Ar-Rahim  (the  Compassionate). 

3.  Al-Malik  (the  King). 

4.  Al-Quddus  (the  Holy). 

5.  As-Salam  (the  Peace).  -    '  * 


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301 


6.  Al-Mu'mim  (the  Faithful). 

7.  Al-Muhaimin  (the  Protector). 

8.  Al-Aziz  (the  Mighty). 

9.  Al-Jabbar  (the  Repairer). 

10.  Al-Mutakabbir  (the  Great). 

11.  Al-Khalig  (the  Creator). 

12.  Al-Bari  (the  Maker). 

13.  Al-Musawwir  (the  Fashioner). 

14.  Al-Ghaff'ar  (the  Forgiver). 

15.  Al-Qahhar  (the  Dominant). 

16.  Al-Wahhab  (the  Bestower). 

17.  Ar-Razzag  (the  Provider). 

18.  Al-Fattah  (the  Opener). 

19.  Al-'Alim  (the  Knower). 

20.  Al-Oabiz  (the  Restrainer). 

21.  Al-Basit  (the  Spreader). 

22.  Al-Khafiz  (the  Abaser). 

23.  Ar-Rafi  (the  Exalter). 

24.  Al-Mu'izz  (the  Honorer). 

25.  Al-Muzil  (the  Destroyer). 

26.  As-Sami  (the  Hearer). 

27.  Al-Basir  (the  Seer). 

28.  Al-Hakim  (the  Ruler). 

29.  Al-'Adl  (the  Just). 

30.  Al-Latif  (the  Subtle). 

31.  Al-Khabir  (the  Aware). 

32.  Al-Halim  (the  Clement). 

33.  Al-'Azim  (the  Grand). 

34.  Al-Ghafur  (the  Forgiving). 

35.  Ash-Shakur  (the  Grateful). 

36.  Al-'Ali  (the  Exalted). 

37.  Al-Kabir  (the  Great). 

38.  Al-Haf'iz  (the  Guardian). 

39.  Al-Mugit  (the  Strengthener). 

40.  Al-Hasib  (the  Reckoner). 

41.  Al-Jalil  (the  Majestic). 

42.  Al-Karim  (the  Generous). 

43.  Ar-Ragib  (the  Watcher). 

44.  Al-Mujib  (the  Approver). 

45.  Al-Wasi'  (the  Comprehensive). 


502 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


46.  Al-Hakim  (the  Wise). 

47.  Al-Wadud  (the  Loving). 

48.  Al-Mazid  (the  Glorious). 

49.  Al-Bais  (the  Raiser). 

50.  Ash-Shahid  (the  Witness). 

51.  Al-Hagg  (the  Truth). 

52.  Al-Wakil  (the  Advocate). 

53.  Al-Qawi  (the  Strong). 

54.  Al-Matin  (the  Firm). 

55.  Al-Wali  (the  Patron). 

56.  Al-Hamid  (the  Laudable). 

57.  Al-Musi  (the  Counter). 

58.  Al-Mubdi  (the  Beginner). 

59.  Al-Mu'id  (the  Restorer). 

60.  Al-Muhyi  (the  Quickener). 

61.  Al-Mumit  (the  Killer). 

62.  Al-Haiy  (the  Living). 

63.  Al-Oaiyum  (the  Subsisting). 

64.  Al-Wajid  (the  Finder). 

65.  Al-Majid  (the  Glorious). 

66.  Al-Wahid  (the  One). 

67.  Al-Samad  (the  Eternal). 

68.  Al-Oadir  (the  Powerful). 

69.  Al-Mugtadir  (the  Prevailing). 

70.  Al-Mugaddim  (the  Bringing  Forward). 

71.  Al-Mu'akhkhir  (the  Deferrer). 

72.  Al-Awwal  (the  hirst). 

73.  Al-Akhir  (the  Last). 

74.  Az-Zahir  (the  Evident). 

75.  Al-Batin  (the  Hidden). 

76.  Al-Wali  (the  Governor). 

77.  Al-Muta'ali  (the  Exalted). 

78.  Al-Barr  (the  Righteous). 

79.  At-Tauwab  (the  Accepter  of  Repentance). 

80.  Al-Muntagirn  (the  Avenger). 

81.  Al-'Afmv  (the  Pardoner). 

82.  Ar-Ra'uf  (the  Kind). 

83.  Maliku  '1-Mulk  (the  Ruler  of  the  Kingdom). 

84.  Zu  '1-Jalali  wa'l-Ikram  (the  Lord  of  Majesty  and  Liberality). 

85.  Al-Mugsit  (the  Equitable). 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


303 


86.  Al-Jami'  (the  Collector). 

87.  Al-Ghani  (the  Independent). 

88.  Al-Mughni  (the  Enricher). 

89.  Al-Mu'ti  (the  Giver). 

90.  Al-Mani'  (the  Withholder). 

91.  Az-Zarr  (the  Distresser). 

92.  Ari-Nafi'  (the  Profiter). 

93.  An-Nur  (the  Light). 

94.  Al-Hadi  (the  Guide). 

95.  Al-Badi'  (the  Incomparable). 

96.  Al-Bagi  (the  Enduring). 

97.  Al-Waris  (the  Inheritor). 

98.  Ar-Rashid  (the  Director). 

99.  As-Sabur  (the  Patient). 

The  list  either  begins  or  closes  with  Allah,  thus  completing  the 
number  of  one  hundred  names,  which  are  usually  recited  on  a  rosary  in 
the  ceremony  of  Zikr,  as  well  as  at  all  leisure  moments,  by  devout 
Moslems.  The  ^Yahhabis  do  not  use  a  rosary,  but  count  the  names 
on  their  fingers,  which  they  say  was  the  custom  of  the  Prophet,  for  from 
the  Traditions  it  appears  that  Mohammed  did  not  use  a  rosary. 

AZAN. 

Lit  "announcement."  The  call  or  summons  to  public  prayers  pro- 
claimed by  Mu'azzin  (or  crier) — in  small  mosques  from  the  side  of  the 
building  or  at  the  door,  and  in  the  large  mosques  in  the  minaret. 

It  is  in  Arabic  as  follows : 

Allahu  akbar  !  Allahu  akbar  !  Allahu  akbar  !  Allahu  akbar !  Ash- 
hadu  an  la  ilaha  ilia  'llah !  Ashhadu  an  la  ilaha  ilia  'llah !  Ashhadu 
anna  Muhammadan  rasulu-llah !  Ashhadu  anna  Muhammadan  rasulu- 
llah !  Hayya  'ala  's-salati !  Hayya  'ala  's-salati !  Hayya  'ala  '1- 
falah !  Hayya  'ala  '1-falah !  Allahu  akbar !  Allahu  akbar !  La  ilaha 
ilia  'llah ! 

Which  is  translated : 

"God  is  most  great!  God  is  most  great!  God  is  most  great!  God 
is  most  great !  I  testify  that  there  is  no  god  but  God !  I  testify  that 
there  is  no  god  but  God !  I  testify  that  Mohammed  is  the  Apostle  of 
God  !  Come  to  prayer !  Come  to  prayer  !  Come  to  salvation  !  Come 
to  salvation  !  God  is  most  great !  God  is  most  great !  There  is  no  god 
but  God!" 


304 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


In  the  Azan  in  the  early  morning,  after  the  words,  "Come  to  sal- 
vation !"  is  added : 

As-salatu  khairun  mina  'n-naumi!  As-salatu  khairun  mina  'n- 
naumi !   "Prayer  is  better  than  sleep  !    Prayer  is  better  than  sleep !" 

The  Shi'ahs  make  a  slight  alteration  in  the  Azan,  by  adding  the 
words : 

Khairi  l-'amali !  Hayya  'ala  khairi  'l-'amali !  "Come  to  the  best  of 
works !  Come  to  the  best  of  works  !"  and  by  repeating  the  last  sentence 
of  the  Azan,  "There  is  no  god  but  God,"  twice  instead  of  once,  as  in  the 
Sunni  Azan. 

The  summons  to  prayer  was  at  first  the  simply  cry,  "Come  to  pub- 
lic prayer."  After  their  Qiblah  was  changed,  Mohammed  bethought 
himself  of  a  more  formal  call.  Some  suggested  the  Jewish  trumpet, 
others  the  Christian  bell;  but  neither  was  grateful  to  the  Prophet's 
ear.  The  Azan,  or  call  to  prayer  was  then  established.  Tradition 
claims  for  it  a  supernatural  origin,  thus :  "While  the  matter  was  under 
discussion,  Abdu  'llah,  a  Khazrajite,  dreamed  that  he  had  met  a  man 
clad  in  green  raiment  carrying  a  bell.  'Abdu  'llah  sought  to  buy  it, 
saying  that  it  would  do  well  for  bringing  together  the  assembly  of  the 
faithful.  "I  will  show  thee  a  better  way,"  replied  the  stranger ;  "let  a 
crier  cry  aloud,  'God  is  most  great,'  etc."  Waking  from  sleep,  'Abdu- 
'llah  proceeded  to  Mohammed,  and  told  him  his  dream. 

The  Azan  is  proclaimed  before  the  stated  times  of  prayer,  either 
by  one  of  the  congregation,  or  by  the  Mu'azzin  or  crier,  who  is  paid  for 
the  purpose.  He  must  stand  with  his  face  towards  Makkah,  with  the 
points  of  his  forefingers  in  his  ears,  and  recite  the  formula  which  has 
been  given  above. 

It  must  not  be  recited  by  an  unclean  person,  a  drunkard,  a  madman, 
or  a  woman. 

ABLUTION. 

Ablution  is  described  by  Mohammed  as  "the  half  of  faith  and  the 
key  of  prayer  and  is  founded  on  the  authority  of  the  Koran,  sura  v. 
8,  'O,  Believers !  when  ye  prepare  yourselves  for  prayer,  wash  your  faces 
and  hands  up  to  the  elbows,  and  wipe  your  heads  and  your  feet  to  the 
ankles.'  " 

These  ablutions  are  absolutely  necessary  as  a  preparation  for  the 
recital  of  the  liturgical  form  of  prayer,  and  are  performed  as  follows: 
The  worshiper,  having  tucked  up  his  sleeves  a  little  higher  than  his  el- 
bows, washes  his  hands  three  times,  then  he  rinses  his  mouth  three 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


305 


times,  throwing  the  water  into  it  with  his  right  hand.  After  this,  he, 
with  his  right  hand,  throws  water  up  his  nostrils,  snuffing  it  up  at 
the  same  time,  and  then  blows  it  out,  compressing  his  nostrils  with  his 
thumb  and  finger  of  the  left  hand — this  being  also  performed  three 
times.  He  then  washes  his  face  three  times,  throwing  up  the  water  with 
both  hands.  He  next  washes  his  right  hand  and  arm,  as  high  as  the 
elbow,  and  in  the  same  manner  he  washes  the  left.  Then  he  draws  his 
wetted  right  hand  over  the  upper  part  of  his  head,  raising  his  turban 
or  cap  with  his  left.  If  he  has  a  beard,  he  then  combs  it  with  the  wetted 
fingers  of  his  right  hand,  holding  his  hand  with  the  palm  forwards  and 
passing  the  fingers  through  his  beard  from  the  throat  upwards.  He  then 
puts  the  tips  of  his  fore-fingers  into  his  ears  and  twists  them  round, 
passing  his  thumbs  at  the  same  time  round  the  back  of  the  ears  from 
the  bottom  upwards.  Next  he  wipes  his  neck  with  the  back  of  the  fingers 
of  both  hands,  making  the  ends  of  his  fingers  meet  behind  his  neck, 
and  then  drawing  them  forward.  Lastly,  he  washes  his  feet,  as  high 
as  the  ankles  and  passes  his  fingers  between  the  toes.  During  this  cere- 
mony which  is  generally  performed  in  less  than  three  minutes,  the  in- 
tending worshiper  usually  recites  some  pious  ejaculations  or  prayers. 
For  example : 

Before  commenceing  the  wuzu' : — "I  am  going  to  purify  myself  from 
all  bodily  uncleanliness,  preparatory  to  commencing  prayer,  that  holy 
act  of  duty,  which  will  draw  my  soul  near  to  the  throne  of  the  Most 
High.  In  the  name  of  God,  the  Great  and  Mighty.  Praise  be  to  God 
who  has  given  us  grace  to  be  Moslems.  Islam  is  a  truth  and  infidelity 
a  falsehood." 

When  washing  the  nostrils : — "O  my  God,  if  I  am  pleasing  in  Thy 
sight,  perfume  me  with  the  odors  of  paradise." 

When  washing  the  right  hand: — "O  my  God,  on  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, place  the  book  of  my  acting  in  my  right  hand,  and  examine  my 
account  with  favor." 

When  washing  the  left  hand: — "O  my  God,  place  not  at  the  resur- 
rection the  book  of  my  actions  in  my  left  hand." 

The  Shiya'  is,  acting  more  in  accordance  with  the  text  of  the 
Koran  as  quoted  above,  only  wipe  or  rub  the  feet,  instead  of  washing 
them,  as  do  the  Sunnis. 

The  ablution  need  not  be  performed  before  each  of  the  five  stated 
periods  of  prayer,  when  the  person  is  conscious  of  having  avoided  every 
kind  of  impurity  since  the  last  performance  of  the  ablution.  The  private 
parts  of  the  body  must  also  be  purified  when  necessary.    When  water 


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cannot  be  procured,  or  would  be  injurious  to  health,  the  ablution  may  be 
performed  with  dust  or  sand.  This  ceremony  is  called  Tayammum.  The 
washing  of  the  whole  body  is  necessary  after  certain  periods  of  impurity. 
The  brushing  of  the  teeth  is  also  a  religious  duty.  The  benefits  of  ab- 
lution are  highly  extolled  in  the  sayings  of  Mohammed,  e.  g.,  "He  who 
performs  the  wuzu'  thoroughly  will  extract  all  sin  from  his  body  even 
though  it  may  be  lurking  under  his  finger  nails."  In  the  day  of  resurrec- 
tion people  shall  come  with  bright  faces,  hands  and  feet,  and  there  will 
be  jewels  in  every  place  where  the  waters  of  the  wuzu'  have  reached." 

In  all  the  principal  mosques  there  are  tanks,  or  wells,  which  supply 
water  for  the  purposes  of  legal  purification. 

WUZU'. 

The  ablution  made  before  saying  the  appointed  prayers.  Those 
which  are  said  to  be  of  divine  institution  are  four  in  number,  namely  : 
to  wash  (i)  the  face  from  the  top  of  the  forehead  to  the  chin,  and  as 
far  as  each  ear ;  and  (2)  the  hands  and  arms  up  to  the  elbows ;  (3)  to  rub 
(masah)  with  the  wet  hands  a  fourth  part  of  the  head ;  also  (4)  the  feet 
to  the  ankles.  The  authority  for  these  actions  is  the  Koran,  Sura  v. 
8 :  "O  Believers !  when  ye  address  yourselves  to  prayer,  wash  your 
hands  up  to  the  elbow,  and  wipe  your  heads,  and  your  feet  to  the  ankles." 
The  Sunnis  wash  the  feet :  the  Shi'ahs  are  apparently  more  correct,  for 
the}-  only  wipe,  or  rather  rub  (masah)  them.  In  these  ablutions,  if  the 
least  portion  of  the  specified  part  is  left  untouched,  the  whole  act  be- 
comes useless  and  the  prayer  which  follows  is  vain. 

The  Sunnah  regulations  (or  those  established  on  the  example  of 
Mohammed)  regarding  it  as  fourteen  in  number.  (1)  to  make  the  inten  - 
tion or  niyah  of  wuzu',  thus:  "I  make  this  wuzu  for  the  purpose  of 
putting  away  impurity ;"  (2)  to  wash  the  hands  up  to  the  wrist,  but  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  hands  entirely  into  the  water,  until  each  has 
been  rubbed  three  times  with  water  poured  on  it ;  (3)  to  say  one  of  the 
names  of  God  at  the  commencement  of  the  wuzu'.  thus:  "In  the  name  of 
the  Great  God;"  or  "Thanks  to  God;"  (4)  to  clean  the  teeth  (miswah); 
(5)  to  rinse  the  mouth  three  times  ;  (6)  to  put  water  into  the  nostril  three 
times;  (7)  to  do  all  the  above  in  proper  order;  (8)  to  do  all  without 
any  delay  between  the  various  acts;  (9)  each  part  is  to  be  purified  three 
times;  (10)  the  space  between  the  fingers  on  one  hand  must  be  rubbed 
with  the  wet  fingers  of  the  other  ;  (i  1)  the  beard  must  be  combed  with  the 
fingers;  (12)  the  whole  head  must  be  rubbed  once;  (13)  the  ears  must  be 
washed  with  the  water  remaining  on  the  fingers  after  the  last  operation ; 


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307 


(14)  to  rub  under  and  between  the  toes  with  the  little  finger  of  the  left 
hand,  drawing  it  from  the  little  toe  of  the  right  foot  and  between 
each  toe  in  succession. 

PRAYER  [Arabic  salat). 

Persian  Namaz.  Prayer  is^  the  second  of  the  five  foundations,  or 
pillars,  of  practical  religion  in  Islam,  and  is  a  devotional  exercise  which 
every  Moslem  is  required  to  render  to  God  at  least  five  times  a  day, 
namely,  at  the  early  morning,  midday,  afternoon,  evening,  and  night. 

According  to  the  traditions,  Mohammed  professed  to  have  received 
instructions  to  recite  prayers  five  times  a  day,  during  his  mi'raj,  or 
ascent  to  heaven.    The  tradition  runs  thus  : 

"The  divine  injunction  for  prayer  was  originally  fifty  times  a  day. 
And  as  I  passed  Moses  (in  heaven,  during  my  ascent),  Moses  said  to 
me.  'What  have  you  been  ordered?'  I  replied,  'Fifty  times!'  Then 
Moses  said,  'Verily  your  people  will  never  be  able  to  bear  it,  for  I  tried 
the  children  of  Israel  with  fifty  times  a  day,  but  they  could  not  manage 
it.'  Then  I  returned  to  the  Lord  and  asked  for  some  remission.  And 
ten  prayers  were  taken  off.  Then  I  pleaded  again  and  ten  more  were 
remitted.  And  so  on,  while  at  last  they  were  reduced  to  five  times. 
Then  I  went  to  Moses,  and  he  said,  'And  how  many  prayers  have  yon 
been  ordered?'  And  I  replied,  'Five.'  And  Moses  said,  'Verily,  I  tried 
the  children  of  Israel  with  even  five,  but  it  did  not  succeed.  Return  to 
your  Lord,  and  ask  for  further  remission.'  But  I  said,  T  have  asked 
until  I  am  quite  ashamed,  and  I  cannot  ask  again.'  " 

This  Salat,  or  liturgical  service,  has  thus  become  one  of  the  most 
prominent  features  of  the  Mohammedan  religion,  and  very  numerous 
are  the  injunctions  regarding  it  which  have  been  handed  down  in  the 
traditions.  There  are  various  minor  differences  amongst  the  numerous 
sects  of  Islam  regarding  the  formula,  but  its  main  features  are  alike 
in  all  countries. 

When  the  prayers  are  said  in  a  congregation  or  in  the  mosque,  they 
begin  with  the  Igamah,  which  is  a  recitation  of  the  same  words  as  the 
azan,  with  the  addition  of  the  sentence,  "Prayers  are  now  ready !"  The 
regular  form  of  prayer  then  begins  with  the  Xiyah,  which  is  said  stand- 
ing, with  the  hands  on  either  side  : — 

"I  have  purposed  to  offer  up  to  God  only,  with  a  sincere  heart  this 
morning  (or  as  the  case  may  be),  with  my  face  Qiblah-wards,  two  (or 
as  the  case  may  be)  rak'ah  prayers  Tarz  (Sunnah,  or  Nafl)." 

Then  follows  the  Takbir-i-Tahrimah,  said  with  the  thumbs  touching 


308 


PERSIA  BY'A  PERSIAN. 


the  lobules  of  the  ears  and  the  open  hands  on  each  side  of  the  face. 

The  Qiyam,  or  standing  position.  The  right  hand  placed  upon  the 
left,  below  the  navel  (the  Shaft-is  and  the  two  other  orthodox  sects,  place 
their  hands  on  their  breasts,  as  also  the  Wahhabis ;  the  Shi-ahs  keep 
their  hands  on  either  side.  In  all  the  sects  the  women  perform  the 
Qiyam  with  their  hands  on  their  breast),  and  the  eyes  looking  to  the 
ground  in  self-abasement.  During  which  is  said  the  Subhan  (the  Shi- 
ahs,  omit  the  Subhan)  : — 

"Holiness  to  Thee,  O  God! 
And  praise  be  to  Thee ! 
Great  is  Thy  name ! 
Great  is  Thy  greatness ! 
There  is  no  deity  but  Thee!" 

The  Ta'awwuz,  or  A'uzubillah,  is  then  said  as  follows : — 

"I  seek  refuge  from  God  from  cursed  Satan." 

After  which  the  Tasmiyah  is  repeated : — 

"In  the  name  of  God,  the  compassionate,  the  merciful." 

Then  follows  the  Tabihah,  viz.,  the  first  chapter  of  the  Koran : — 
"Praise  be  to  God,  Lord  of  all  the  worlds ! 
The  compassionate,  the  merciful ! 
King  of  the  day  of  reckoning! 
Thee  only  do  we  worship,  and  to  Thee 

only  do  Ave  cry  for  help. 
Guide  Thou  us  in  the  straight  pass, 
The  path  of  those  to  whom  Thou  hast  been  gracious; 
With  whom  Thou  art  not  angry, 
And  who  go  not  astray. — Amen." 

After  this  the  worshiper  can  repeat  as  many  chapters  of  the  Koran 
as  he  may  wish ;  he  should,  at  least,  recite  one  long  or  two  short  verses. 
The  following  chapter  is  usually  recited,  namely,  the  Suratu'  1-Ikhlas, 
or  the  112th  chapter: — 

"Say:  He  is  God  alone: 

God  the  Eternal ! 

He  begetteth  not, 

And  is  not  begotten. 

And  there  is  none  like  unto  Him." 

The  Takbir-i-Ruku',  said  whilst  making  an  inclination  of  the  head 
and  body  and  placing  the  hands  upon  the  knees,  separating  the  fingers 
a  little. 


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300 


"God  is  great!" 
The  Tasbih-i-Ruku'  said  in  the  same  posture. 

"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  Great ! 
"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  Great ! 
"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  Great  !" 

The  Qiyam-i-Sami'  Ullah  or  Tasmi',  said  with  the  body  erect,  but, 
unlike  the  former  Qiyam,  the  hands  being  placed  on  either  side.  The 
imam  says  aloud  (when  the  prayers  are  said  by  a  person  alone,  he  re- 
cites both  sentences) : — 

"God  hears  him  who  praises  Him." 
The  people  then  respond  in  a  low  voice : — 

"O  Lord,  Thou  art  praised." 
Takbir-i-Sijdah,  said  as  the  worshiper  drops  on  his  knees. 

God  is  great ! 

Tasbih-i-Sijdah,  recited  as  the  worshiper  puts  first  his  nose  and 
then  his  forehead  to  the  ground : 

"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  most  High ! 
"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  most  High ! 
"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  most  High !" 

Then  raising  his  head  and  body  and  sinking  backward  upon  his 
heels,  and  placing  his  hands  upon  his  thighs,  he  says  the  Takbir-i-Jalsah 
(the  Shiahs  here  omit  the  Takbir,  and  say  instead,  "I  rise  and  sit  by 
the  power  of  God !") 

"God  is  great!" 
Then  whilst  prostrating  as  before,  he  says  the  Takbir-i-Sijdah. 

"God  is  great !" 
And  then  during  the  prostration  the  Tasbih-i-Sijdah  as  before : 

"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  most  High ! 
"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  most  High ! 
"I  extol  the  holiness  of  my  Lord,  the  most  High ! 

Then,  if  at  the  close  of  one  rak'ah,  he  repeats  the  Takbir  standing, 
when  it  is  called  Takbir-i-Qiyam ;  but  at  the  end  of  two  rak'ahs,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  prayer,  he  repeats  it  sitting,  when  it  is  called  Takbir-i- 
Ou'ud.  (The  Shi'ahs  here  recite  the  Takbir) :  "God  is  great !"  with  the 
thumbs  touching  the  lobules  of  the  ear,  and  add,  "I  seek  forgiveness 
from  God  my  Lord,  and  I  repent  before  Him." 

"God  is  great." 


310 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Here  ends  one  rak'ah,  or  form  of  prayer.  The  next  rak'ah  begins 
with  the  Fatikah,  or  first  chapter  of  the  Koran.  At  the  close  of  every 
two  rak'ahs  he  recites  the  Ta-hiyah,  which  is  said  whilst  kneeling  upon 
the  ground.  His  left  foot  bent  under  him,  he  sits  upon  it,  and  places 
his  hands  upon  his  knees  and  says  (the  Shi'ahs  omit  the  Ta-hiyah: 

"The  adoration  of  the  tongue  are  for  God,  and  also  the  adorations 
of  the  body,  and  alms-giving!  Peace  be  on  thee,  O  Prophet,  with  the 
mercy  of  God  and  his  blessing!" 

"Peace  be  upon  us  and  upon  God's  righteous  servants!" 

Then  raising  the  first  finger  of  the  right  hand  he  recites  the  Tas- 
h a  blind : 

"I  testify  that  there  is  no  deity  but  God;  and  I  testify  that  Moham- 
med is  the  servant  of  God,  and  the  messenger  of  God !" 

"God  have  mercy  on  Mohammed  and  his  descendants"  (the  Shi'- 
ahs merely  recite) : 

"( rod  have  mercy  on  Mohammed  ;  (and  omit  the  rest),  as  Thou  didst 
have  mercy  on  Abraham  and  on  his  descendants,  as  Thou  didst  bless 
Abraham  and  his  descendants!" 

"Thou  art  to  be  praised  and  Thou  art  great !" 

Then  the  Du'a : 

"()  God  our  Lord,  give  us  the  blessings  of  this  life,  and  also  the 
blessings  of  life  everlasting.    Save  us  from  the  torments  of  fire." 

The  Du'a  is  omitted  by  the  Shi'ahs,  who  recite  the  following  in- 
stead: "Peace  be  on  thee,  O  Prophet,  with  the  mercy  of  God  and  His 
blessing!    Peace  be  upon  us  and  upon  God's  righteous  servants!" 

He  then  closes  with  the  salam. 

Turning  the  head  around  to  the  right,  he  says:  "The  peace  and 
mercy  of  God  be  with  you." 

At  the  close  of  the  whole  set  of  prayers  that  is  of  Farz,  Sunnah, 
Nafl,  or  Witr,  the  worshiper  raises  his  hands  and  offers  up  a  Munajat, 
or  "supplication."  This  usually  consists  of  prayers  selected  from  the 
Koran  or  Hadis.  They  ought  to  be  said  in  Arabic,  although  they  are 
frequently  offered  up  in  the  vernacular. 

Such  supplications  were  highly  commended  by  Mohammed,  who 
is  related  to  have  said.  "Supplication  is  the  marrow  of  worship." 
"There  is  nothing  better  before  God  than  supplication." 

"Supplicate  God  when  ye  are  certain  of  its  approval,  and  know 
that  God  accepts  not  the  supplication  of  a  negligent  heart." 

"Verily,  your  Lord  is  ashamed  of  his  servants  when  they  raise  up 
their  hands  to  Him  in  supplication  to  return  them  empty." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


311 


These  daily  prayers  are  either  Farz,  Sunnah,  Nafl  or  Witr.  Farz 
are  those  rak'ahs  (or  form  of  prayer),  said  to  be  enjoined  by  God. 
Sunnah,  those  founded  on  the  practice  of  Mohammed.  Nafl,  the 
voluntary  performance  of  two  rak'ahs.  or  more,  which  may  be  omitted 
without  sin.  Witr,  an  odd  number  of  rak'ahs,  either  one,  three,  five, 
or  seven,  said  after  the  night  prayer.  These  divisions  of  prayer  are  en- 
tirely distinct  from  each  other.  They  each  begin  afresh  with  the  Xiyah, 
and  worshipers  may  rest  for  awhile  between  them,  but  not  converse 
on  worldly  subjects.  The  Wahhabis  think  it  correct  to  say  the  Sunnah 
prayers  in  their  houses  and  only  the  Farz  prayers  in  the  mosque. 

The  five  times  of  prayer  are  known  as  Zuhr.  'Asr,  Maghrib,  Tsha, 
and  Fajr.  There  are  also  three  voluntary  periods  called  Ishrag,  Zuha, 
and  Tahajjud. 

The  official  prayer  of  Islam,  which  is  used  throughout  all  the 
Mohammedan  countries  and  is  daily  repeated  in  the  Cairo  University 
by  ten  thousand  Mohammedan  students  from  all  countries,  reads  thus : 

"I  seek  refuge  with  Allah,  from  Satan  the  accursed,  in  the  name 
of  Allah,  the  compassionate,  the  merciful.  O  Lord  of  all  creatures,  O 
Allah,  destroy  the  infidels  and  thine  enemies,  the  enemies  of  religion. 
O  Allah,  make  their  children  orphans  and  defile  their  abodes.  Cause 
their  feet  to  slip.  Give  them  and  their  families,  their  children,  house- 
hold and  women  and  relations  by  marriage,  their  brothers  and  friends, 
their  possessions  and  their  race,  their  wealth  and  lands  as  booty  to  the 
Musselman,  O  Lord  of  all  creatures !" 

Here  are  some  of  the  commandments  of  the  Koran : 

(1)  They  are  surely  infidels  who  say:  "Verily  God  is  Christ,  the 
son  of  Mary."'    Koran,  chapter  5. 

(2)  O  true  believers,  take  not  the  Jews  or  Christians  for  your 
friends ;  they  are  friends  to  each  other ;  but  whosoever  among  you 
taketh  them  for  friends,  he  is  surely  one  of  them.    Koran,  chapter  5. 

(3)  War  is  enjoined  upon  you  against  the  infidels,  but  this  is  hateful 
unto  you ;  yet  perchance  ye  hate  a  thing  which  is  better  for  you,  and 
perchance  ye  love  a  thing  which  is  worse  for  you;  but  God  knoweth 
and  ye  know  not.    Koran,  chapter  2. 

(4)  Fight,  therefore,  against  them  until  there  be  no  temptation  to 
idolatry,  and  the  religion  be  God's.    Koran,  chapter  2. 

(5)  Fight  against  the  friends  of  Satan  for  the  stratagem  of  Satan 
is  weak.    Koran,  chapter  4. 

(6)  And  when  the  months  wherein  ye  are  not  allowed  to  attack 
them  shall  be  past,  kill  the  idolators  wheresoever  ye  shall  find  them, 


312 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


and  take  them  prisoners  and  besiege  them  and  lie  in  ambush  for  them 
ill  every  convenient  place.    Koran,  chapter  9. 

(7)  When  ye  encounter  the  unbelievers  strike  off  their  heads  until 
ye  have  made  great  slaughter  among  them.    Koran,  chapter  47. 

(8)  Ye  are  also  forbidden  to  take  to  wife  free  women  who  are 
married  except  those  women  whom  your  right  hand  shall  possess  as 
slaves.  This  is  ordained  you  from  God." 

So  you  see  they  have  for  a  guide  in  this  life  the  Koran  and  the 
reward  hereafter,  Paradise. 

SALATU  'S-SAFAR. 

"Prayers  of  travel."  A  shortened  recital  of  prayer  allowed  to 
travelers.  It  is  founded  on  a  tradition  by  Ya'la  ibu  Umaiyah,  who  says, 
"I  said  to  'Umar,  God  hath  said,  'When  ye  go  to  war  in  the  land,  it 
shall  be  no  sin  for  you  to  shorten  your  prayers  if  ye  fear  that  the  infidels 
may  attack  you ;'  but  now,  verily,  we  are  safe  in  this  journey,  and  yet  we 
shorten  your  prayers.  'Umar  replied,  T  also  wondered  at  the  thing  that 
astonished  you ;'  but  the  prophet  said,  'God  hath  done  you  a  kindness 
in  curtailing  your  prayers,  therefore  accept  it.'  Ibu  'Umar  says,  T 
traveled  with  the  Prophet,  and  he  did  not  say  more  than  two  rak'ahs 
of  prayer,  and  Abu  Bakr  and  'Umar  and  'Usman  did  the  same.'  Ibu 
'Abbas  says,  'The  Prophet  used  to  say  on  a  journey  the  noon  and  after- 
noon prayers  together,  and  the  sunset  and  evening  prayer  together.'  " 

The  established  prayers  for  a  traveler  are,  therefore,  two  rak'ahs 
instead  of  the  four  farz  rak'ahs  at  the  noon  and  afternoon  and  evening 
prayers,  and  the  usual  two  farz  at  the  morning  and  the  usual  three  farz 
at  the  sunset  prayers ;  all  voluntary  prayers  being  omitted. 

SALATU  'T-TARAWITR. 
"Prayer  of  rest."  So  called  because  of  the  pause  or  rest  made 
for  ejaculations  between  every  four  rak'ahs.  Twenty  rak'ah  prayers 
recited  after  the  night  prayer  during  the  month  of  Ramazan.  They  are 
often  followed  with  recitations  known  as  zikrs,  and  form  an  exciting 
service  of  devotion.  The  Imam  recites  the  Tarawitr  prayers-  with  a 
loud  voice. 

Abu  Hurairah  says  :  "The  Prophet  used  to  encourage  people  to  say 
night  prayers  in  Ramazan  without  ordering  them  positively,  and  would 
say,  'He  who  stands  up  in  prayer  at  night,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
reward,  will  have  all  his  sins  pardoned;'  then  the  Prophet  died,  leaving 
the  prayers  of  Ramazan  in  this  way."  It  is  said  'Umar  instituted  the 
present  custom  of  reciting  the  twenty  rak'ahs. 


EELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


313 


SALATU  T-TASBIH. 

"Prayer  of  praise."  A  form  of  prayer  founded  on  the  following- 
tradition  related  by  Ibu  'Abbas,  who  says : 

"Verily,  the  Prophet  said  to  my  father,  'O  'Abbas !  O  my  uncle ! 
shall  I  not  give  you,  shall  I  not  present  unto  you,  shall  I  not  inform 
you  of  a  thing  which  covers  acts  of  sin?  When  you  perform  it,  God  will 
forgive  your  sins,  your  former  sins,  and  your  latter  sins,  and  those  sins 
which  you  did  unknowingly,  your  great  sins,  your  small  sins,  your  dis- 
closed sins  and  your  concealed  sins !  It  is  this,  namely,  that  you  recite 
four  rak'ahs  of  prayer,  and  in  each  rak'ah  recite  the  Fatihatu  '1-Kitab 
(i.  e.,  the  Introductory  chapter  of  the  Koran),  and  some  other  Sura 
of  the  Koran ;  and  when  you  have  recited  these  portions  of  the  Koran  in 
the  position  of  Qiyam,  then  say,  'Holiness  to  God !'  and  'Praise  be  to 
God !'  and  'There  is  no  deity  but  God !'  and  'God  is  most  great !'  fifteen 
times.  Then  perform  a  ruku'  and  recite  it  ten  times ;  then  raise  up 
your  head  and  say  it  ten  times ;  then  make  the  sadjah  and  say  it  ten 
times ;  then  raise  your  head  and  say  it  ten  times ;  then  make  another 
sadjah,  and  say  it  ten  times,  then  raise  your  head  again  and  say  it  ten 
times ;  altogether  seventy-five  times  in  every  rak'ah ;  and  do  this  in  each 
of  the  rak'ah.  If  you  are  able  to  say  this  form  of  prayer  every  day,  then 
do  so,  but  if  not,  do  it  once  every  Friday,  and  if  not  each  week,  then  say 
it  once  a  month,  and  if  not  once  a  month,  then  say  it  once  a  year,  and 
if  not  once  a  year,  then  do  it  once  in  your  lifetime.'  " 

The  foregoing  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the  mechanical  character 
of  the  Moslem  religion  as  regards  its  system  of  devotion. 

PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD. 

According  to  the  teaching  of  Mohammed,  it  is  the  duty  of  all  • 
true  Moslems  to  pray  for  the  dead  (Durru  '1-Muktar,  p.  135).  See 
also  Mishkat,  book  v.  chapter  iii. 

"God  most  certainly  exalts  the  degrees  of  a  virtuous  servant  in 
Paradise,  and  the  virtuous  servant  says,  'O  my  Lord,  from  whence  is 
this  exalted  degree  for  me?'  and  God  says,  'It  is  on  account  of  your 
children  asking  pardon  for  you.'  " 

"The  Prophet  passed  the  graves  in  al-Madinah  and  turned  his  face 
toward  them,  and  said,  'Peace  be  to  you,  O  inhabitants  of  the  graves ! 
May  God  forgive  us  and  you.  Ye  have  passed  on  before  us,  and  we  are 
following  you." 

"A  dead  person  in  the  grave  is  like  one  over  his  head  in  water,  who 
calls  to  somebody  to  take  him  by  the  hand.    For  he  has  hope  that  his 


314 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


father  or  mother,  or  his  brother,  or  his  friend  will  pray  for  him.  For 
when  the  prayer  reaches  the  dead  person,  it  is  more  esteemed  by  him 
than  the  whole  world,  and  all  that  is  in  it;  and  verily  God  most  certainly 
gives  to  the  dead,  on  account  of  the  prayers  of  the  people  on  earth, 
rewards  like  mountains,  for  verily  the  offerings  of  the  living  for  the 
dead  are  asking  forgiveness  for  them." 

Sura  lxxi.  29 :  "And  Noah  said,  'O  my  God,  forgive  me  and  my 
parents.'  " 

Sura  ix.  114,  115:  "It  is  not  for  the  Prophet  to  pray  for  the  for- 
giveness of  those  who,  even  though  they  be  near  of  kin,  associate 
other  gods  with  God,  after  it  has  been  made  clear  to  them  that  they  are 
to  be  inmates  of  hell.  For  neither  did  Abraham  ask  forgiveness  for  his 
father,  but  in  pursuance  of  a  promise  which  he  had  promised  him,  and 
when  it  was  shown  him  that  he  was  an  enemy  of  God,  he  declared  him- 
self clear  of  him ;  yet  Abraham  was  pitiful  and  kind." 

It  is  related  in  the  Traditions  that  the  Prophet  visited  his  mother's 
grave,  and  wept  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  those  who  were  standing 
around  him  to  weep  also.  And  the  Prophet  said,  "I  have  asked  my  bene- 
factor permission  to  ask  pardon  for  my  mother,  which  was  not  granted 
then.  I  asked  my  Lord's  permission  to  visit  her  grave  and  it  was 
granted,  therefore  do  ye  visit  graves,  because  they  remind  you  of  death." 

FRIDAY  (Arabic  Jum'ah). 

"The  day  of  Assembly."  The  Mohammedan  Sabbath,  on  which 
they  assemble  in  the  Jumi'  'Masjid,  or  chief  mosque,  and  recite  two 
rik'ahs  of  prayers  and  listen  to  the  oration  or  khutbah  at  the  time  of 
midday  prayer.  Mohammed  claims  in  the  Traditions  to  have  estab- 
lished Friday  as  a  day  of  worship  by  divine  command.  He  says,  "Friday 
was  ordered  as  a  divine  day  of  worship  both  for  the  Jew  and  Christian, 
but  they  have  acted  contrary  to  the  command.  The  Jew  fixed  Saturday 
and  the  Christians  fixed  Sunday." 

According  to  the  same  traditions,  Friday  is  "the  best  day  on  which 
the  sun  rises,  the  day  on  which  Adam  was  taken  into  Paradise  and 
turned  out  of  it,  the  day  on  which  he  repented  and  on  which  he  died. 
It  will  also  be  the  Day  of  Resurrection." 

There  is  only  a  certain  hour  on  Friday  (known  only  to  God),  on 
which  a  Moslem  obtains  all  the  good  he  asks  of  the  Almighty.  Mo- 
hammed prayed  that  God  put  a  seal  on  the  heart  of  every  Moslem  who 
through  negligence  omits  prayer  for  three  successive  Fridays.  Moham- 
med said:   "Whoever  bathes  on  Friday  and  comes  to  prayers  in  the  be- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


315 


ginning  and  comes  on  foot  and  sits  near  the  Imam  and  listens  to  the 
khutbah,  and  says  nothing  playful,  but  sits  silent,  every  step  he  takes 
will  get  the  rewards  of  a  whole  year's  worshiping  and  rewards  of  one 
year's  fast  and  one  year's  prayings  at  night." 

"There  are  three  descriptions  of  people  present  on  Friday ;  one 
of  them  who  comes  to  the  Masjid  talking  triflingly,  and  this  is  what 
he  gets  instead  of  rewards;  and  there  is  a  man  who  is  present  for  mak- 
ing supplications,  and  he  asks  God,  and  if  He  wills  He  gives  him;  if  not, 
refuses ;  the  third  a  man  who  attends  to  hear  the  khutbah  and  is  silent, 
and  does  not  incommode  any  one,  and  this  Friday  covers  his  sins  till  the 
next,  and  three  days  longer;  for  God  says,  'Whoever  doth  one  good 
act  will  receive  ten  in  return.'  " 

ZAKAT. 

In  its  primitive  sense  the  word  zakat  means  purification,  whence 
it  is  also  used  to- express  a  portion  of  property  bestowed  in  alms,  as 
sanctification  of  the  remainder  to  the  proprietor.  It  is  an  institution  of 
Islam  and  founded  upon  an  express  command  in  the  Koran,  being  one 
of  the  five  foundations  of  practical  religion. 

It  is  a  religious  duty  incumbent  upon  any  person  who  is  free,  sane, 
adult,  and  a  Moslem,  provided  he  be  possessed  in  full  property  of  such 
estate  or  effects  as  are  termed  in  the  language  of  the  law  nisab,  and 
that  he  has  been  in  possession  of  the  same  for  the  space  of  one  complete 
year.  The  nisab,  or  fixed  amount  of  property  upon  which  zakat  is  due, 
varies  with  reference  to  the  different  kinds  of  property  in  possession,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  present  article. 

The  one  complete  year  in  which  the  property  is  held  in  possession  is 
termed  hauho  '1-haul.  Zakat  is  not  incumbent  upon  a  man  against  whom 
there  are  debts  equal  to  or  exceeding  the  amount  of  his  whole  property, 
nor  is  it  due  upon  the  necessaries  of  life,  such  as  dwelling  houses  or 
articles  of  clothing,  or  household  furniture,  or  cattle  kept  for  immediate 
use,  or  slaves  employed  as  actual  servants,  or  armour  and  weapons  de- 
signed for  present  use,  or  upon  books  of  science  and  theology  used  by 
scholars,  or  upon  tools  used  by  craftsmen. 

(i)  The  zakat  of  camels.  Zakat  is  not  clue  upon  less  than  five 
camels,  and  upon  five  camels  it  is  one  goat  or  sheep,  provided  they 
subsist  upon  pasture  throughout  the  year,  because  zakat  is  only  due 
upon  such  camels  as  live  on  pasture,  and  not  upon  those  which  are  fed 
in  the  home  with  forage.  One  goat  is  due  upon  any  number  of  camels 
from  five  to  nine ;  two  goats  for  any  number  of  camels  from  ten  to  four- 


316 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


teen;  three  goats  for  any  number  from  twenty  to  twenty-four.  Upon 
any  number  of  camels  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-five  the  zakat  is  a  bint 
mikhaz,  or  a  yearling  female  camel ;  from  thirty-six  to  forty-five,  a  bint 
labun,  or  a  two-year-old  female  camel ;  from  forty-six  to  sixty,  a  higgah, 
or  a  three-year-old  female  camel;  from  sixty-one  to  seventy-five,  a 
jiz'ah,  or  four-year-old  female  camel;  from  seventy-five  to  ninety,  two 
camels'  female  two-year-old  colts ;  and  from  ninety-one  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty,  two  camels'  female  three-year-old  colts.  When  the  num- 
ber of  camels  exceeds  one  hundred  and  twenty,  the  zakat  is  calculated 
by  the  aforesaid  rule. 

(2)  The  zakat  of  bulls,  cows  and  buffaloes.  No  zakat  is  due  upon 
fewer  than  thirty  cattle,  and  upon  thirty  cattle  which  feed  on  pasture  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  there  is  due  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  tabi  'ah, 
or  a  one-year-old  calf;  and  upon  forty  is  due  a  musim,  or  a  calf  of  two 
years  old ;  and  where  the  number  exceeds  forty,  the  zakat  is  to  be  cal- 
culated according  to  this  rule.  For  example,  upon  sixty,  the  zakat  is 
two  yearling  calves;  upon  seventy,  one  tabi  'ah;  upon  eighty,  two  mu- 
sims ;  upon  ninety,  three  tabi  'ahs ;  upon  one  hundred,  two  tabi  'ahs  and 
one  musim ;  and  thus  upon  every  ten  head  of  cattle  a  musim  and  a  tabi 
'ah  alternately.  Thus,  upon  one  hundred  and  ten  kine,  the  zakat  is  two 
musims  and  one  tabi  'ah ;  and  one  hundred  and  twenty,  four  tabi  'ahs. 
The  usual  method,  however,  of  calculating  the  zakat  upon  large  herds 
of  cattle  is  by  dividing  them  into  thirties  and  forties,  imposing  upon 
every  thirty  one  tabi  'ah,  or  upon  every  forty  one  musim. 

(3)  Zakat  upon  sheep  and  goats.  No  zakat  is  due  upon  less  than 
forty,  which  have  fed  the  greater  part  of  the  year  upon  pasture,  upon 
which  is  due  one  goat,  until  the  number  reaches  one  hundred  and 
twenty;  for  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  to  two  hundred  it  is  two 
goats  or  sheep ;  and  above  this,  one  for  every  hundred.  The  same 
rules  apply  to  both  sheep  and  goats,  because  in  the  Traditions  the 
original  word  ghanam  applies  to  both  species. 

(4)  Zakat  upon  horses.  When  horses  and  mares  are  kept  indis- 
criminately together,  feeding  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  on  pasture, 
it  is  the  option  of  the  proprietor  to  give  a  zakat  of  one  dinar  per  head 
for  the  whole,  or  to  appreciate  the  whole,  and  give  five  per  cent  upon  the 
total  value.  No  zakat  whatever  is  due  upon  droves  of  horses  consisting 
entirely  of  males,  or  entirely  of  mares.  There  is  no  zakat  due  upon 
horses  or  mules,  unless  they  are  articles  of  merchandise,  nor  is  it  due 
upon  war  horses,  or  upon  beasts  of  burden,  or  upon  cattle  kept  for 
drawing  plows  and  so  forth. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


317 


(5)  Zakat  upon  silver.  It  is  not  due  upon  silver  of  less  value  than 
two  hundred  dirhams,  but  if  one  be  possessed  of  this  sum  for  a  whole 
year,  the  zakat  due  upon  it  is  five  dirhams.  No  zakat  is  due  upon  an 
excess  above  the  two  hundred  dirhams  till  such  excess  amount  to  forty, 
upon  which  the  zakat  is  one  dirham,  and  for  every  succeeding  forty,  one 
dirham.  Those  dirhams  in  which  silver  predominates  are  to  be  accounted 
silver,  and  the  laws  respecting  silver  apply  to  them,  although  they 
should  contain  some  alloy;  and  the  same  rule  holds  with  regard  to  all 
articles  falling  under  the  denomination  of  plate,  such  as  cups  and 
goblets. 

(6)  Zakat  upon  gold.  No  zakat  is  due  upon  gold  under  the  value 
of  twenty  misquals,  and  the  zakat  due  upon  twenty  misquals  is  half  a 
misqual.  When  the  quantity  of  gold  exceeds  twenty  misquals,  on  every 
four  misquals  above  twenty  are  due  two  qirates,  and  so  on  in  propor- 
tion. 

Zakat  is  due  upon  gold  and  silver  bullion,  and  upon  all  gold  and 
silver  ornaments  and  utensils. 

(7)  Zakat  upon  articles  of  merchandise.  Articles  of  merchandise 
should  be  appraised  and  a  zakat  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent  paid  upon 
the  value,  if  it  exceed  two  hundred  dirhams  in  value. 

(8)  Zakat  upon  mines,  or  buried  treasures.  Mines  of  gold,  silver, 
iron,  lead,  or  copper,  are  subject  to  a  zakat  of  one-fifth ;  but  if  the  mine 
is  discovered  within  the  precincts  of  a  person's  own  home,  nothing  is 
due.  And  if  a  person  find  a  deposit  of  buried  treasure,  a  fifth  is  due 
upon  it.    No  zakat  is  due  upon  precious  stones. 

(9)  Zakat  upon  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Upon  everything  produced 
from  the  ground  there  is  a  tenth,  whether  the  soil  be  watered  by  the 
overflow  of  rivers  or  by  periodical  rains,  excepting  the  articles  of  wood, 
bamboo,  and  grass,  which  are  not  subject  to  the  tithe.  Land  watered 
by  means  of  buckets,  or  machinery,  or  watering  camels,  is  subject  to  a 
twentieth.  Honey  and  fruits  collected  in  the  wilderness  are  subject  to 
tithe. 

The  zakat  is  received  by  a  collector  duly  appointed  for  the  purpose, 
although  it  is  lawful  for  the  possessor  to  distribute  his  alms  himself.  If 
a  person  come  to  the  collector,  and  make  a  declaration  on  oath  as  to  the 
amount  of  his  property  upon  which  zakat  is  due,  his  statement  is  to  be 
credited. 

There  are  seven  descriptions  of  persons  upon  whom  zakat  may  be 
bestowed. 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


(1)  Fagirs,  or  persons  possessed  of  property,  the  whole  of  which, 
however,  does  not  amount  to  a  nisab. 

(2)  Miskins,  or  persons  who  have  no  property  whatever. 

(3)  The  collector  of  zakat. 

(4)  Slaves. 

(5)  Debtors. 

(6)  Fi  sabili  llah,  i.  e.,  in  the  service  of  God,  or  religious  warfare. 

(7)  Travelers. 

The  above  laws  with  reference  to  zakat  are  those  according  to  the 
Hanafiyah  sect,  but  the  differences  amongst  the  Imams  of  the  Sunnis 
on  this  subject  are  but  small.  They  may  be  seen  upon  reference  to  Ham- 
ilton's translation  of  the  Hidayah,  vol.  1.  p.  1. 

HAJJ. 

Lit.  "setting  out,"  "tending  towards."  The  pilgrimage  to  Makkah 
performed  in  the  month  of  Zu  '1-Hijah,  or  the  twelfth  month  of  the 
Mohammedan  year.  It  is  the  fifth  pillar  of  Mohammedan  practical  re- 
ligion, and  an  incumbent  religious  duty,  founded  upon  express  injunc- 
tions in  the  Koran.  According  to  Mohammed  it  is  a  divine  institution, 
and  has  the  following  authority  in  the  Koran  for  its  due  observance : 

"And  proclaim  to  the  people  a  pilgrimage.  Let  them  come  to  thee 
on  foot  and  on  every  fleet  camel,  arriving  by  every  deep  defile: 

"This  do.  And  he  that  respecteth  the  sacred  ordinance  of  God,  this 
will  be  best  for  him  with  the  Lord." 

"And  some  say,  'Our  Lord!  give  us  good  in  this  world  and  good  in 
the  next,  and  keep  us  from  the  torment  of  fire.' 

"They  shall  have  the  lot  which  they  have  merited;  and  God  is  swift 
to  reckon. 

"Hear  God  in  mind  during  the  stated  days;  but  if  any  haste  away 
in  two  days  (i.  e.,  after  the  hajj),  it  shall  be  no  fault  in  him:  And  if  any 
tarry  longer,  it  shall  be  no  fault  in  him,  if  he  fear  God.  Fear  <  rod,  then, 
and  know  that  to  Him  shall  ye  be  gathered." 

Sura  iii  190 :  "The  first  temple  that  was  founded  for  mankind  was 
that  in  Bakkah  (i.  e.,  Makkah).  Blessed,  and  a  guidance  to  human 
beings." 

For  a  lawful  hajj  there  are  three  actions  which  are  farz,  and  five 
which  are  wajib;  .all  the  rest  are  sunnah  or  mustahabb.  The  farz  are: 
to  wear  no  other  garment  except  the  ihram  ;  to  stand  in  'Arafat;  to 
make  the  tawaf,  or  circuit  round  the  Ka  'bah. 

The  wajib  duties  are:    To  stay  in  al-Muzalifah ;  to  run  between 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


319 


Mount  as-Safa  and  Mount  al-Marwah ;  to  perform  the  "Ramyu'r-Rijam, 
or  the  casting  of  the  pebbles ;  if  the  pilgrims  are  non-Meccans,  to  make 
an  extra  tawaf ;  to  shave  the  head  after  the  pligrimage  is  over. 

The  hajj  must  be  made  at  the  appointed  season.  Sura  ii  :i93 : 
"Let  the  pilgrimage  be  made  in  the  months  already  known."  These 
months  are  Shawwal,  Zu  '1-Qa'dah,  and  the  first  ten  days  of  Zu  '1-Hij- 
jah.  The  actual  hajj  must  be  in  the  month  of  Zu  '1-Hijjah,  but  the 
preparations  for,  and  the  niyah,  or  intention  of  the  hajj  can  be  made 
in  the  two  preceding  months.  The  'umrah,  or  ordinary  visitation,  can 
be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year  except  on  the  ninth  and  four  succeeding 
days  of  Zu  '1-Hijjah.  On  each  of  the  various  roads  leading  to  Makkah, 
there  are  at  a  distance  of  about  five  or  six  miles  from  the  city  stages 
called  Migat.  The  following  are  the  names :  On  the  Madinah  road,  the 
stages  are  called  Zu  '1-Halifah;  on  the  'Irag  road,  Zatu  'Arg;  on  the 
Syrian  road,  Hujfah;  on  the  Hajd  road,  Oarn ;  on  the  Yaman  road, 
Yalamlam. 

The  following  is  the  othodox  way  of  performing  the  pilgrimage, 
founded  upon  the  example  of  the  Prophet  himself. 

Upon  the  pilgrim's  arrival  at  the  last  stage  near  Makkah,  he  bathes 
himself,  and  performs  two  rak'ah  prayers,  and  then  divesting  himself 
of  his  clothes,  he  assumes  the  pilgrim's  sacred  robe,  which  is  called 
ihram.  This  garment  consists  of  two  seamless  wrappers,  one  being 
wrapped  round  the  waist,  and  the  other  thrown  loosely  over  the  shoulder, 
the  head  being  left  uncovered.  Sandals  may  also  be  worn,  but  not  shoes 
or  boots.  After  he  has  assumed  the  pilgrim's  garb,  he  must  not  anoint 
his  head,  shave  any  part  of  his  body,  pare  his  nails,  nor  wear  any  other 
garment  than  the  ihram.  The  pilgrim  having  now  entered  upon  the 
hajj,  faces  Makkah,  and  makes  the  niyah  (intention),  and  says :  "O  God, 
I  purpose  to  make  the  hajj ;  make  this  service  easy  to  me  and  accept  it 
from  me."  He  then  proceeds  on  his  journey  to  the  sacred  city  and  on 
his  way,  as  well  as  at  different  periods  in  the  pilgrimag-e  he  recites  or 
sings  with  a  loud  voice  the  pilgrim's  song,  called  the  Talbiyah  (a  word 
signifying  waiting  or  standing  for  orders).  In  Arabic  it  runs  thus  (as 
given  in  the  Sahihu  '1-Bukhari,  p.  210)  : 

"Labbaika  !    Allahumma  !    Labbaika  ! 
Labbaika !    La  Sharika  laka  !    Labbaika  ! 
Inn  '1-hamda  wa  'n-ni-mata  laka,  wa'l-mulka  laka ! 
La  Sharika  laka!" 


320 


Which,  following  the  Persian  commentator,  'Abdu'l-Hagg,  may  be  trans- 
lated as  follows : 

"I  stand  up  for  Thy  service,  O  God !    I  stand  up ! 
I  stand  up !    There  is  no  partner  with  Thee !    I  stand  up  ! 
Verily,  Thine  is  the  Praise,  the  Blessing  and  the  Kingdom ! 
There  is  no  partner  with  Thee! 

Immediately  on  his  arrival  at  Makkah  he  performs  legal  ablutions  in 
the  Masjidu'l-haram,  and  then  kisses  the  black  stone  (al-Hajaru'l-as- 
wad).  He  then  encompasses  the  Ka'bah  seven  times;  three  times  at 
quick  step  or  run,  and  four  times  at  a  slow  pace.  These  acts  are  called 
the  tawaf  and  are  formed  by  commencing  on  the  right  and  leaving  the 
Ka'bah  on  the  left.  Each  time  as  the  pilgrim  passes  round  the  Ka'bah 
he  touches  the  Ruknu'l-Yamani,  or  the  Yamani  corner,  and  kisses  the 
sacred  black  stone.  He  then  proceeds  to  the  Magamu  Ibrahim  (the 
place  of  Abraham),  where  he  recites  the  119th  verse  of  the  22nd  Sura  of 
the  Koran,  "Take  ye  the  station  of  Abraham  for  a  place  of  prayer,"  and 
performs  two  rak'ah  prayers,  after  which  he  returns  to  the  black  stone 
and  kisses  it.  He  then  goes  to  the  gate  of  the  temple  leading  to  Mount 
as-Safa,  and  from  it  ascends  the  hill,  reciting  the  153rd  verse  of  the  2nd 
Sura  of  the  Koran,  "Verily,  as-Safa  and  al-Marwah  are  the  signs  of 
God."  Having  arrived  at  the  summit  of  the  mount,  turning  towards  the 
Ka'bah,  he  recites  the  following: 

"There  is  no  deity  but  only  God !  God  is  great !  There  is  no  deity 
but  God  alone !  He  hath  performed  His  promise,  and  hath  aided  His 
servant  and  hath  put  to  flight  the  host  of  infidels  by  Himself  alone !" 

These  words  are  recited  thrice.  He  then  runs  from  the  top  of 
Mount  as-Safa  to  the  summit  of  Mount  al-Marwah  seven  times,  repeat- 
ing the  aforesaid  prayers  on  the  top  of  each  hill.  This  is  the  sixth  day, 
the  evening  of  which  is  spent  at  Makkah,  where  he  again  encompasses 
the  Ka'bah. 

Upon  the  seventh  day  he  listens  to  the  khutbah,  or  oration,  in  the 
great  mosque  in  which  are  set  forth  the  excellences  of  the  pilgrimage 
and  the  necessary  duties  required  of  all  true  Moslems  on  the  following 
days. 

On  the  eighth  day,  which  is  called  Tarwiyah,  he  proceeds  with  his 
fellow  pilgrims  to  Mina,  where  he  stays  and  performs  the  usual  services 
of  the  Moslem  ritual,  and  remains  the  night. 

The  next  day  (the  ninth),  after  morning  prayer,  he  proceeds  to 
Mount  'Arafat,  where  he  recites  the  usual  prayers  and  listens  to  another 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


321 


khutbah.  He  then  leaves  for  al-Muzdalifah,  a  place  midway  between 
Mina  and  'Arafat,  where  he  should  arrive  for  the  sunset  prayer. 

The  next  day,  the  tenth,  is  the  Yaumu'n-Nahr,  or  the  "Day  of  Sac- 
rifice," known  all  through  the  Moslem  world  and  celebrated  as  the  Tdu- 
'1-Azha.  Early  in  the  morning,  the  pilgrims  having  said  their  prayers  at 
Muzdalifah  they  proceed  in  a  body  to  three  pillars  in  Mina,  the  first  of 
which  is  called  the  Shaitanu  '1-Kubir,  or  Great  Devil."  The  pilgrims 
cast  seven  stones  at  each  of  these  pillars,  the  ceremony  being  called  the 
Ramyu'r-Rijam,  or  casting  of  stones.  Holding  the  rijam,  or  pebble 
between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  the  pilgrim  throws 
it  at  a  distance  of  not  less  than  fifteen  feet,  and  says,  "In  the  name  of 
God,  the  Almighty,  I  do  this  and  in  hatred  of  the  devil  and  his  shame." 
The  remaining  six  stones  are  thrown  in  the  same  way.  It  is  said  that 
this  ceremony  has  been  performed  ever  since  the  days  of  Bahira,  a  Nes- 
torian  monk  whom  Mohammed  met  when  he  was  journeying  back  from 
Syria  to  Makkah,  and  who  is  said  to  have  perceived  by  various  signs  that 
he  was  a  prophet.  His  Christian  name  is  supposed  to  have  been  Sergius 
(or  Georgius). 

Sprenger  thinks  that  Bahira  remained  with  Mohammed,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  there  is  an  allusion  to  this  monk  in  the  Koran, 
Sura  xvi  1105  :  "We  know  that  they  say,  'It  is  only  a  man  who  teacheth 
him.'  "  Husain,  the  commentator,  says  on  this  passage  that  the  Prophet 
was  in  the  habit  of  going  every  evening  to  a  Christian  to  hear  the 
Taurat,  and  Injil.  Another  Syrian  writer  has  said  that  Sergius  said  to 
Mohammed,  'T  will  write  you  a  book  and  make  you  a  prophet." 

Mohammed  consented  to  this.  After  the  book  was  ready,  two  men 
agreed  to  meet  at  a  certain  well,  the  teacher  going  down  in  the  well. 
Mohammed  was  to  take  with  him  messengers  who  carried  ropes.  The 
Ghristian  teacher  said  that  he  would  not  send  the  book  in  the  first  two 
which  came  to  him,  but  the  third  rope  was  to  contain  the  book. 

Mohammed  said  to  the  people:  God  has  spoken  to  me  in  a  vision, 
that  I  am  to  be  the  last  Prophet.  He  has  sent  me  a  book  from  heaven, 
which  is  in  a  certain  well.  Come  and  be  my  witness  of  the  truth,  and 
bring  my  book  up.  They  did  as  he  had  said,  and  in  accordance  with  the 
promise  of  the  teacher,  the  book  was  sent  up  the  third  time.  When  they 
saw  the  book  they  all  believed  him  to  be  the  true  Prophet.  Then  Mo- 
hammed said :  "Whoever  believeth  in  me  to  be  the  last  Prophet,  and 
believeth  in  my  book,  let  him  throw  a  stone  in  that  well ;"  so  each  one 
of  them  did  what  was  asked,  and  the  man  who  wrote  the  book  was 
killed,  without  their  knowing  what  they  had  done.    Since,  it  has  been 


322 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


kept  by  them,  this  casting-  or  throwing  of  stones.  The  pilgrim  then  re- 
turns to  Mina  and  performs  the  sacrifice  of  the  Tdu  '1-Azha.  The  victim 
may  be  a  sheep  or  goat  or  a  cow  or  a  camel,  according  to  the  means  of 
the  pilgrim. 

Placing  its  head  towards  the  Ka'bah,  its  forelegs  being  bandaged 
together,  the  pilgrim  stands  on  the  right  side  of  his  victim  and  plunges 
the  knife  into  its  throat  with  great  force,  and  cries  with  a  loud  voice, 
''Allah  Akbar!"  "God  is  great!  O  God,  accept  this  sacrifice  from 
me !" 

This  ceremony  concludes  the  pilgrimage,  and  the  hajj,  or  pilgrim 
then  gets  himself  shaved  and  his  nails  pared,  and  the  ihram  or  pilgrim 
garment  is  removed.  Although  the  pilgrimage  is  over,  he  should 
still  rest  at  Makkah  the  three  following  days,  which  are  known  as  the 
Ayyamu't-Tashrig,  or  the  days  of  drying  up  of  the  blood  of  the  sacrifice. 
Three  well  earned  days  of  rest  after  the  peripatetic  performance  of  the 
last  four  days. 

Before  he  leaves  Makkah  he  should  once  more  perform  the  circuits 
round  Ka'bah  and  throw  stone  at  ihe  Satanic  pillars  at  Mina.  seven 
times.    He  should  also  drink  of  the  water  of  the  Zamzam  well. 

Most  Moslems  then  go  to  al-Madinah.  and  make  their  salutations 
at  the  shrine  of  Mohammed.  This  is  regarded  as  an  incumbent  duty 
by  all  except  the  Wahhabis,  who  hold  that  to  make  the  visitation  of 
the  Prophet's  tomb  a  religious  ceremony  is  shirk,  or  associating  the 
the  creature  with  God,  From  the  time  the  pilgrim  has  assumed  the 
ihram  until  he  takes  it  off,  he  must  abstain  from  all  worldly  affairs 
and  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  duties  of  the  hajj.  He  is  not  allowed 
to  hunt,  though  he  may  catch  fish  if  he  can.  "O  Believers  kill  no  game 
while  ye  are  on  pilgrimage."  (Sura  v.  96).  The  Prophet  also  said: 
"Ik-  who  shows  the  place  where  game  is  to  be  found  is  equally  as  bad 
as  the  man  who  kills  it."  The  hajj  must  not  scratch  himself,  lest  vermin 
be  destroyed,  or  a  hair  be  uprooted.  Should  he  feel  uncomfortable,  he 
must  rub  himself  with  the  open  palm  of  his  hand.  The  face  and  head 
must  be  left  uncovered,  the  hair  on  the  head  and  beard  unwashed  and 
uncut.  "Shave  not  your  heads  until  the  offering  reach  the  place  of 
sacrifice."  (Sura  ii.  H)2).  ( )n  arriving  at  an  elevated  place,  on  descend- 
ing a  valley,  or  meeting  any  one,  on  entering  the  city  of  Makkah,  or  the 
sacred  temple,  the  hajj  should  continually  repeat  the  word  "Labbaika, 
Labbaika ;"  and.  whenever  he  sees  the  Ka'bah  he  should  recite  the 
Takbir,  "God  is  great!"  and  the  Ta'lih  "There  is  no  deity  but  God!" 

The  pilgrimage  known  as  the  hajj,  as  has  been  already  stated,  can 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


323 


only  be  made  on  the  appointed  days  of  the  month  of  Zn'l-Hijjah.  A 
visit  at  any  other  time  is  called  the  'Umrah.  If  the  pilgrim  arrives  as 
late  as  the  ninth  day,  and  is  in  time  to  spend  that  day,  he  can  still  perform 
the  pilgrimage  legally. 

The  pilgrimage  cannot  be  performed  by  proxy  by  Snnni  Moslems, 
but  is  allowed  by  the  Shi'ahs,  and  it  is  by  both  considered  a  meritorious 
act  to  pay  the  expenses  of  one  who  cannot  afford  to  perform  it.  But  if 
a  Mohammedan  on  his  deathbed  bequeath  a  sum  of  money  to  be  paid 
to  a  certain  person  to  perform  the  pilgrimage,  it  is  considered  to  satisfy 
the  claims  of  the  Moslem  law.  If  a  Moslem  have  the  means  of  per- 
forming the  pilgrimage,  and  omit  to  do  so,  its  omission  is  equal  to  a 
kabirah,  or  mortal  sin.  According  to  the  saying  of  the  Prophet,  the 
merits  of  pilgrimage  to  Makkah  are  very  great : 

"He  who  makes  a  pilgrimage  for  God's  sake,  and  does  not  talk 
loosely,  nor  act  wickedly,  shall  return  as  pure  from  sin  as  the  day  on 
which  he  was  born."-  "Verily,  they  put  away  poverty  and  sin  like  the 
fires  of  a  forge  removes  dross.  The  reward  of  a  pilgrimage  is  paradise." 
"When  you  see  a  pilgrim,  salute  and  embrace  him,  and  request  him  to 
ask  pardon  of  God  for  you,  for  his  own  sins  have  been  forgiven  and 
his  supplications  will  be  accepted." 

The  ceremonies  of  the  pilgrimage  could  not  be  entirely  done  away 
with.  The  universal  reverence  of  the  Arab  for  the  Kaabah  was  too 
favorable  and  obvious  a  means  for  uniting  all  the  tribes  into  one  con- 
federation with  one  common  purpose  in  view.  The  traditions  of  Abra- 
ham, the  father  of  their  race,  and  the  founder  of  Mohammed's  own 
religion,  as  he  always  declared  it  to  be,  no  doubt  gave  the  ancient  tem- 
ple a  peculiar  sanctity  in  the  Prophet's  eyes,  and  although  he  first 
settled  upon  Jerusalem  as  his  qiblah,  he  afterwards  reverted  to  the 
Kaabah  itself.  Here,  then,  Mohammed  found  a  shrine,  to  which,  as 
well  as  at  which,  devotion  had  been  paid  from  time  immemorial ;  it  was 
one  thing  which  the  scattered  Arabian  nation  had  in  common — the 
one  thing  which  gave  them  even  the  shadow  of  a  national  feeling;  and 
to  have  dreamed  of  abolishing  it,  or  even  diminishing  the  honors  paid 
to  it,  would  have  been  madness  and  ruin  to  his  enterprise.  He,  therefore, 
did  the  next  best  thing,  he  cleared  it  of  idols  and  dedicated  it  to  the 
service  of  God. 

This  same  pilgrimage  is  often  urged  as  a  sign  of  Mohammed's 
tendency  to  superstition,  even  idolatry.  It  is  asked  how  the  destroyer 
of  idols  could  have  concealed  his  conscience  to  the  circuits  of  the  Ka"- 
bah  and  veneration  of  the  black  stone  covered  with  adoring  kisses. 


324 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


The  rites  of  the  pilgrimage  cannot,  certainly,  be  defended  against  the 
charge  of  superstition ;  but  it  is  easy  to  see  why  Momammed  enjoined 
them.  They  were  hallowed  to  him  by  the  memories  of  his  ancestors, 
who  had  been  the  guardians  of  the  sacred  temple,  and  by  the  traditional 
reverence  of  all  his  people ;  and  besides  this  tie  of  association,  which  in 
itself  was  enough  to  make  it  impossible  for  him  to  do  away  with  the  rites, 
Mohammed  perceived  that  the  worship  in  the  Ka'bah  would  prove  of 
real  value  to  religion.  He  swept  away  the  more  idolatrous  and  immoral 
part  of  the  ceremonies,  but  he  retained  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  and 
the  old  veneration  of  the  temple  for  reasons  of  which  it  is  impossible 
to  dispute  the  wisdom.  He  well  knew  the  consolidating  effect  of  form- 
ing a  center  to  which  his  followers  should  gather;  and  hence  he  re- 
asserted the  sanctity  of  the  black  stone  that  'came  down  from  heaven 
he  ordained  that  everywhere  throughout  the  world  the  Moslem  should 
pray  looking  towards  Ka'bah,  and  he  enjoined  him  to  make  the  pilgrim- 
age thither.  Mecca  is  to  the  Moslem  what  Jerusalem  is  to  the  Jew. 
It  bears  with  it  all  the*  influences  of  centuries  of  associations.  It  carries 
the  Moslem  back  to  the  cradle  of  his  faith,  the  childhood  of  his  Prophet ; 
it  reminds  him  of  the  struggle  between  the  old  faith  and  the  new,  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  idols,  and  the  establishment  of  the  worship  of  the  one 
God.  And  most  of  all  it  bids  him  remember  that  all  his  brother 
Moslems  are  worshiping  towards  the  same  sacred  spot ;  that  he  is  one  of 
a  great  company  of  believers,  united  by  one  faith,  filled  with  the  same 
hopes,  reverencing  the  same  thing,  worshiping  the  same  God.  Moham- 
med showed  his  knowledge  of  the  religious  emotions  in  man  when  he 
preserved  the  sanctity  of  the  temple  of  Islam. 

The  Meccan  pilgrimage  admits  of  no  other  explanation  than  this, 
that  the  Prophet  of  Arabia  found  it  expedient  to  compromise  with 
Arabian  idolatry.  And  hence  we  find  the  superstition  and  silly  customs 
of  the  Hajj  grafted  on  to  a  religion  which  professes  to  be  both  mono- 
theistic in  its  principles,  and  iconoclastic  in  its  practices. 

A  careful  and  critical  study  of  Islam  will,  we  think,  convince  any 
candid  mind  that  at  first  Mohammed  intended  to  construct  his  religion 
on  the  lines  of  the  Old  Testament.  Abraham,  the  true  Moslem,  was 
his  prototype,  Moses  his  law-giver,  and  Jerusalem  his  Oiblah.  But 
circumstances  were  ever  wont  to  change  not  only  the  Prophet's  revela- 
tions, but  also  his  moral  standards.  Mecca  became  the  Oiblah;  and  the 
spectacle  of  the  Moslem  world  bowing  in  the  direction  of  a  black  stone, 
whilst  they  worship  the  one  God,  marks  Islam,  with  its  Meccan  pil- 
grimage, as  a  religion  of  compromise. 


DAVID  BAR  JOSEPH. 
(in  hajj  costume.) 

The  young  man  whom  I  met  in  Berlin,  Germany,  in  1889,  through  whose  kindness  a 
friend  of  his,  Mr.  Schmidt,  paid  all  my  expenses  to  New  York. 


325 


326 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Apologists  of  Islam  have  endeavored  to  shield  Mohammed  from 
the  solemn  charge  of  having  "forged  the  name  of  God,"  but  we  know 
of  nothing  which  can  justify  the  act  of  giving  the  stupid  and  unmean- 
ing ceremonies  of  the  pilgrimage  all  the  force  and  solmenity  of  a  divine 
enactment. 

The  Wahhabis,  the  Puritans  of  Islam,  regard  the  circumambulation 
of  the  Prophet's  tomb  as  superstitions  (as  shirk,  or  associating  some- 
thing with  God,  in  fact),  but  how  can  they  justify  the  foolish  ceremonies 
of  the  hajj  ?  If  reverence  for  the  Prophet's  tomb  is  shirk,  what  are 
the  runnings  at  as-Safa  and  al-'Marvvah,  the  stonings  of  the  pillars,  and 
the  kissings  of  the  black  stone?  No  Moslem  has  ever  yet  attempted 
to  give  a  spiritual  explanation  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Meccari  pilgrim- 
age, for  in  attempting  to  do  so  he  would  be  charged  with  the  heresy 
of  shirk ! 

'IDU  'L-FITR. 

The  festival  of  the  Breaking  of  the  Fast."  It  is  called,  also,  Tdu 
Ramazan,  the  Tdu's-Sadayah  (Feast  of  Alms),  and  the  Tdu's-saghir 
(Minor  Festival).  It  commences  as  soon  as  the  month's  fast  in  Rama- 
zan is  over,  and  consequently,  on  the  first  day  of  the  month  of  Shawwal. 
It  is  specially  a  feast  ol  alms-giving.  "Bring  out  your  alms,"  said  Ibu 
'Abbas,  "for  the  Prophet  has  ordained  this  as  a  divine  institution,  one 
Sa'  of  barley  or  dates,  or  a  half-Sa'  of  wheat :  this  is  for  every  person, 
free  or  bond,  man  or  woman,  old  or  young,  to  purify  thy  fast  (i.  e.,  the 
month's  fast  just  concluded)  of  any  obscene  language,  and  to  give 
victuals  to  the  poor." 

On  this  festival  the  people  having  previously  distributed  the  alms 
which  are  called  the  Sadagatu  '1-Fitr,  assemble  in  the  vast  assembly 
outside  the  city  in  the  Idgah,  and,  being  led  by  the  Imam,  recite  two 
rak'ahs  of  prayer.  After  prayers  the  Imam  ascends  the  mimbar,  or 
pulpit,  and  delivers  the  khutbah,  or  oration.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr. 
Sell  for  the  following  specimens  of  one  of  these  sermons : 

"In  the  name  of  God,  the  Compassionate,  the  Merciful. 

"Holy  is  God  who  has  opened  the  door  of  mercy  for  those  who 
fast,  and  in  mercy  and  kindness  has  granted  them  the  right  of  entrance 
into  heaven.  God  is  greater  than  all.  There  is  no  God  save  Him.  God 
is  great!  God  is  great!  and  worthy  of  praise.  It  is  of  His  Grace 
and  favor  that  He  rewards  those  who  keep  the  fast.  He  has  said:  T 
will  give  in  the  future  world  houses  and  palaces  and  many  ex- 
cellent blessings  to  those  who  fast.'  God  is  great!  God  is  great!  Holy 
is  he  who  certainly  sent  the  Koran  to  our  Prophet  in  the  month  of  Ram- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


327 


azan,  and  who  sends  angels  to  grant  peace  to  all  true  believers.  God  is 
great  and  worthy  of  all  praise.  We  praise  and  thank  him  for  the 
Tdu  '1-Fitr,  that  great  blessing;  and  we  testify  that  beside  Him  there 
is  no  God.  He  is  alone.  He  has  no  partner.  This  witness  which  we 
give  to  His  Unity  will  be  a  cause  of  our  safety  here,  and  finally  gain  us 
an  entrance  to  Paradise.  Mohammed  (on  whom  be  the  mercy  and  peace 
of  God)  and  all  famous  prophets  are  His  slaves.  He  is  the  Lord  of 
genii  and  of  men.  From  Him  comes  mercy  and  peace  upon  Mohammed 
and  his  family,  so  long  as  the  world  shall  last.  God  is  greater  than  all. 
There  is  none  beside  Him.  God  is  great !  God  is  great !  and  worthy  of 
all  praise.  O  company  of  Believers,  O  congregation  of  Moslems,  the 
mercy  of  the  True  One  is  on  you.  He  says  that  His  feast  day  is  a 
blessing  to  you,  and  a  curse  to  unbelievers.  Your  fasting  will  not  be  re- 
warded, and  your  prayers  will  be  stayed  in  their  flight  to  heaven  until 
you  have  given  the  sadagah.  O  congregation  of  Believers,  to  give  alms 
is  to  you  a  wajib  duty.  Give  to  the  poor  some  measures  of  grain  or  its 
money  equivalent.  Your  duty  in  Ramazan  was  to  say  the  Tarawih  prayer, 
to  make  supplication  to  God,  to  sit  and  meditate  and  to  read  the  Koran. 
The  religious  duties  of  the  first  ten  days  of  Ramazan  gain  the  mercy 
of  God.  those  of  the  second  ten  merit  His  pardon;  whilst  those  of  the 
last  ten  save  those  who  do  them  from  the  punishment  of  hell.  God 
has  declared  that  Ramazan  is  a  noble  month,  for  is  not  one  of  its  nights 
the  Lailatu  '1-Oudr,  better  than  a  thousand  months?  On  that  night 
Gabriel  and  the  angels  descended  from  heaven :  till  the  morning  breaks 
it  is  full  of  blessing.  Its  eloquent  interpreter,  and  its  clearest  proof 
is  the  Koran,  the  Word  of  God,  most  Gracious.  Holy  is  God  who  says 
in  the  Koran :  'This  is  a  guide  for  men,  a  distinguisher  between  right 
and  wrong.'  O  Believers,  in  such  a  month  be  present,  obey  the  order  of 
your  God,  and  fast ;  but  let  the  sick  and  the  travelers  substitute  some 
other  days  on  which  to  fast,  so  that  no  days  be  lost,  and  say :  'God  is 
great !'  and  praise  Him.  God  has  made  the  fast  easy  for  you.  O  Be- 
lievers, God  will  bless  you  and  us  by  the  grace  of  the  Holy  Koran. 
Every  verse  of  it  is  a  benefit  to  us  and  fills  us  with  wisdom.  God  is 
the  Bestower,  the  Holy  King,  the  Munificent,  the  Kind,  the  Nourisher, 
the  Merciful,  the  Clement." 

The  Khutbah  being  ended,  the  whole  congregation  raise  their  hands 
and  offer  a  munajat  for  the  remission  of  sins,  the  recovery  of  the  sick, 
increase  of  rain,  abundance  of  corn,  preservation  from  misfortune,  and 
freedom  from  debt.  The  Imam  then  descends  to  the  ground,  and  makes 
further  supplication  for  the  people,  the  congregation  saying  "Amin"  at 


328 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  end  of  each  supplication.  At  the  close  of  the  service  the  members 
of  the  congregation  salute  and  embrace  each  other,  and  offer  mutual 
congratulations,  and  then  return  to  their  homes,  and  spend  the  rest  of 
the  day  in  feasting  and  merriment. 

The  assemblies  of  the  ladies  on  this  festival  are  marked  by  all  the 
amusements  and  indulgences  they  can  possibly  invent  or  enjoy  in  their 
secluded  state.  Some  receiving,  others  paying  visits  in  covered  con- 
veyances ;  all  doing  honor  to  the  day  by  wearing  their  best  jewelry  and 
most  splendid  dress.  The  Zanawatr  rings  with  festive  songs  and  loud 
music,  the  cheerful  meeting  of  friends,  the  distribution  of  presents  to 
dependents,  and  remembrances  to  the  poor;  all  is  life  and  joy,  cheerful 
bustle  and  amusement,  on  this  happy  day  of  festival,  when  the  good 
lady  of  the  mansion  sits  in  state  to  receive  presents  from  inferiors  and 
to  grant  proof  of  her  favor  to  others. 

Soon  after  sunrise  on  the  first  day,  the  people  having  all  dressed  in 
new,  or  in  their  best  clothes,  the  men  assemble  in  the  mosques,  and 
perform  the  prayers  of  two  rak'ahs,  a  Soonneh  ordinance  of  the  'eed ; 
after  which,  the  Khateeb  delivers  an  exhortation.  Friends,  meeting 
in  the  mosque,  or  in  the  street,  or  in  each  other's  houses,  congratulate 
and  embrace  and  kiss  each  other.  They  generally  visit  each  other  for  this 
purpose.  Some  even,  of  the  lower  classes,  dress  themselves  entirely  in  a 
new  suit  of  clothes,  and  almost  everyone  wears  something  new,  if  it  be 
only  a  pair  of  shoes.  The  servant  is  presented  with  at  least  one  new 
article  of  clothing  by  the  master,  and  receives  a  few  piasters  from  each 
of  his  master's  friends,  if  they  visit  the  house;  or  even  goes  to  those 
friends  to  congratulate  them,  and  receives  his  present;  and  if  he  has 
served  a  former  master,  he  also  visits  him  and  is  in  like  manner  rewarded 
for  his  trouble;  and  sometimes  he  brings  a  present  of  a  dish  of  sweet 
cakes,  and  obtains  in  return  money  of  twice  the  value,  or  more.  On  the 
days  of  this  'eed,  most  of  the  people  of  Cairo  eat  salted  fish  and  thin, 
folded  pancakes  and  a  kind  of  bun.  Some  families  also  prepare  a  dish 
consisting  of  stewed  meat,  with  onions,  and  a  quantity  of  treacle,  vine- 
gar, and  a  coarse  flour,  and  the  master  usually  procures  dried  fruit,  such 
as  nuts,  raisins,  etc.,  for  his  family.  Most  of  the  shops  in  the  metropolis 
are  closed,  except  those  at  which  eatables  and  sherbet  are  sold ;  but  the 
streets  present  a  gay  appearance,  from  the  crowds  of  passengers  in  their 
holiday  clothes. 

One  or  more  days  of  this  festival,  some  or  all  of  the  members  of 
most  families,  but  chiefly  the  women,  visit  the  tombs  of  their  relatives. 
This  they  also  do  on  the  occasion  of  the  other  grand  festival  ('Idu  'L- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


329 


Azha).  The  visitors,  or  their  servants,  carry  palm-branches,  and 
sometimes  sweet  basil,  to  lay  upon  the  tomb  which  they  go  to  visit. 
The  palm-branch  is  broken  into  several  pieces,  and  these,  or  the  leaves 
only,  are  placed  on  the  tomb. 

Numerous  groups  of  women  are  seen  on  these  occasions,  bearing 
palm-branches,  on  their  way  to  the  cemeteries  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  metropolis.  They  are  also  provided,  according  to  their  circum- 
stances, with  cakes,  bread,  dates,  or  some  other  kind  of  food,  to  dis- 
tribute to  the  poor  who  resort  to  the  burial-ground  on  these  days.  Some- 
times tents  are  pitched  for  them ;  the  tents  surround  the  tomb  which 
is  the  object  of  the  visit.  The  visitors  recite  the  Fat'hhah,  or  if  they  can 
afford  it,  employ  a  person  first  to  recite  the  Soorat  Ya'-Seen,  or  a 
larger  portion  of  the  Koran.  Often  a  Khutmeh  (or  recital  of  the  whole 
of  the  Koran)  is  performed  at  the  tomb,  or  in  the  house  by  several 
fickees. 

Then  men  generally  return  immediately  after  these  rites  have  been 
performed,  and  the  fragments  or  leaves  of  the  palm-branch  laid  on  the 
tomb :  the  women  usually  go  to  the  tomb  early  in  the  morning,  and  do 
not  return  until  the  afternoon;  some  of  them  (but  these  are  not  gen- 
erally esteemed  women  of  correct  conduct),  if  they  have  a  tent,  pass 
the  night  in  it  and  remain  until  the  end  of  the  festival,  or  until  the 
afternoon  of  the  following  Friday;  so,  too,  do  the  women  of  a  family 
possessed  of  a  private,  enclosed  burial  ground,  with  a  house  within  it  for 
there  are  many  such  enclosures,  and  not  a  few  with  houses  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  the  females  in  the  midst  of  the  public  cemeteries  of 
Cairo.  Intrigues  are  said  to  be  not  uncommon  with  the  females  who 
spend  the  nights  in  tents  among  the  tombs.  The  great  cemetery  of  Bab 
en-Nusr,  in  the  desert  tract  immediately  on  the  north  of  the  metropolis, 
presents  a  remarkable  scene  on  the  two  'eeds.  In  a  part  next  the  city 
gate  from  which  the  burial  ground  takes  its  name  many  swings  and 
whirligigs  are  erected,  and  several  large  tents,  in  some  of  which  dancers, 
reciters  of  Aboo-Zeyd,  and  other  performers,  amuse  a  dense  crowd 
of  spectators;  and  throughout  the  burial-ground  are  seen  numerous 
tents  for  the  reception  of  visitors  to  the  tomb.  About  two  or  three 
days  after  the  'eed  above  described,  the  'Kisweh',  or  covering  of  the 
Kaabeh,  which  is  sent  annually  with  the  great  caravan  of  pilgrims  is 
conveyed  in  procession  from  the  citidal  of  the  metropolis,  where  it  is 
manufactured  at  the  Sultan's  expense,  to  the  mosque  of  the  Hhasaneyn, 
to  be  sewed  together  and  lined  preparatory  to  the  approaching  pilgrim- 
age. .   -  .     .  _      .    _  |    ,    i 


330 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


The  visiting  of  the  tombs  on  the  occasion  of  the  two  festivals  is  not 
a  custom  in  India.  It  is  generally  done  in  the  Maharram,  both  by  the 
Sunnis  and  the  Shi'ahs. 

TDU'L-AZHA. 

Called  also  Yaumu'n-Nahr ;  (i.  e.,  the  cow  festival) ;  and  in  Turkey 
and  Egypt,  Tdu  Bairam.  It  is  also  called  the  Tdu'l-kabir,  the  great 
festival,  as  distinguished  from  the  Tdu'l-Fitr,  which  is  called  the  minor 
festival,  or  al-Tdu's-saghir. 

It  is  celebrated  on  the  ioth  day  of  Zu  '1-Hijjah,  and  is  part  of  the 
rites  of  the  Meccan  pilgrimage,  although  it  is  observed  as  well  in  all 
parts  of  Islam  both  as  a  day  of  sacrifice  and  as  a  great  festival.  It  is 
founded  on  an  injunction  in  the  Koran,  Sura  xxii  ."33-38. 

"This  do.  And  they  who  respect  the  symbols  of  God  perform  an  ac- 
tion which  proceedeth  from  piety  of  heart. 

"Ye  may  obtain  advantages  from  the  cattle  up  to  the  set  time  for 
slaying  them;  then,  the  place  for  sacrificing  them  is  at  the  ancient 
House. 

"And  to  every  people  have  we  appointed  symbols,  that  they  may 
commemorate  the  'name  of  God  over  the  brute  beasts  which  He  hath 
provided  for  them.  And  your  God  is  the  one  God.  To  Him,  therefore, 
surrender  yourselves :  and  bear  thou  good  tidings  to  those  who  humble 
themselves, — 

"Whose  hearts,  when  mention  is  made  of  God,  thrill  with  awe;  ami 
to  those  who  remain  steadfast  under  all  that  beialleth  them,  and  observe 
prayer,  and  give  alms  of  that  with  which  we  have  supplied  them. 

"And  the  camels  have  we  appointed  you  for  the  sacrifice  to  God; 
much  good  have  ye  in  them.  Make  mention,  therefore,  of  the  name 
of  God  over  them  when  ye  slay  them,  as  they  stand  in  a  row;  and  when 
they  are  fallen  over  on  their  sides,  eat  of  them,  and  feed  him  who  is 
content  and  asketh  not,  and  him  who  askelh.  Thus  have  we  subjected 
them  to  you,  to  the  intent  you  should  be  thankful. 

"By  no  means  can  their  flesh  reach  unto  God,  neither  their  blood; 
but  piety  on  your  part  reacheth  Him.  Thus  hath  He  subjected  them 
to  you,  that  ye  magnify  God  for  His  guidance :  moreover,  announce  glad 
tidings  to  those  who  do  good  deeds." 

The  institution  of  the  sacrifice  was  as  follows:  A  few  months  after 
the  Ilijrah,  or  flight  from  Mecca,  Mohammed,  dwelling  in  al-Madinah, 
observed  that  the  Jews  kept,  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month,  the 
great  fast  of  the  Atonement,  A  tradition  records  that  the  Prophet  asked 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


331 


them  why  they  kept  this  fast.  He  was  informed  that  it  was  a  memorial 
of  the  deliverance  of  Moses  and  the  children  of  Israel  from  the  hands 
of  Pharaoh. 

"We  have  a  greater  right  in  Moses  than  they,"  said  Mohammed,  so 
he  fasted  with  the  Jews  and  commanded  his  followers  to  fast  also.  This 
was  at  the  period  of  his  mission  when  Mohammed  was  friendly  with  the 
Jews  of  al-Madinah,  who  occasionally  came  to  hear  him  preach.  The 
Prophet  also  occasionally  attended  the  synagogue.  Then  came  the 
change  of  the  Qiblah  from  Jerusalem  to  Mecca,  for  the  Jews  were  not 
so  ready  to  change  their  creed  as  Mohammed  had  at  first  hoped.  In  the 
second  year  of  the  Hijrah,  Mohammed  and  his  followers  did  not  par- 
ticipate in  the  Jewish  fast,  for  the  Prophet  now  instituted  the  Tdu  '1-Azha. 
The  idolatrous  Arabs  had  been  in  the  habit  of  making  an  annual  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca  at  this  season  of  the  year.  The  offering  of  animals 
in  sacrifice  formed  a  part  of  the  concluding  ceremony  of  that  pilgrimage. 
That  portion— the  sacrifice  of  animals — Mohammed  adopted  in  the  feast 
which  now,  at  al-Madinah,  he  substituted  for  the  Jewish  fast.  This  was 
well  calculated  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Meccans  and  to  gain  the 
goodwill  of  the  Arabs.  Mohammed  could  not  then  make  the  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  for  as  yet  there  was  a  hostile  feeling  between  the  inhabitants 
of  the  two  cities;  but  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  Zu  '1-Hijjah,  at  the 
very  time  when  the  Arabs  at  Mecca  were  engaged  in  sacrificing 
victims,  Mohammed  went  forth  from  his  house  at  al-Madinah,  and, 
assembling  his  followers,  instituted  the  Tdu  '1-Azha.  Two  young  kids 
were  brought  before  him.  One  he  sacrificed  and  said :  "O  Lord,  I 
sacrifice  this  for  my  whole  people,  all  those  who  bear  witness  to  Thy 
unity  and  to  my  mission.  O  Lord !  this  is  for  Mohammed  and  for  the 
family  of  Mohammed." 

The  following  is  the  account  given  by  Mohammedan  writers  :  "When 
Ibrahim  founded  Mecca,  the  Lord  desired  him  to  prepare  a  feast  for 
Him.  Upon  Ibrahim's  (the  friend  of  God)  requesting  to  know  what 
He  would  have  on  the  occasion,  the  Lord  replied,  'Offer  up  thy  son 
Ismail  'il.'  Agreeable  to  God's  .command,  he  took  Ismail  to  the  Ka'bah 
to  sacrifice  him,  and  having  laid  him  down,  he  made  several  ineffectual 
strokes  on  his  throat  with  a  knife,  on  which  Ismail  observed,  'Your  eyes 
being  uncovered,  it  is  through  pity  and  compassion  for  me  you  allow  the 
knife  to  miss ;  it  would  be  better  if  you  blindfolded  yourself  with  the 
end  of  your  turban  and  then  sacrificed  me.'  Ibrahim  acted  upon  his 
son's  suggestion  and  having  repeated  the  words,  'Bi'-smi'llahi  allahu 
akbar'  (i.  e.,  'In  the  name  of  God!  God  is  great!'),  he  drew  the  knife 


332 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


across  his  son's  neck.  In  the  meanwhile,  however,  Gabriel  had  sub- 
stituted a  broad-tailed  sheep  for  the  vouth  Ismail  and  Ibrahim  unfolding 
his  eyes  observed,  to  his  surprise,  the  sheep  slain,  and  his  son  standing 
behind  him." 

It  is  a  notable  fact  that  whilst  Mohammed  professed  to  abrogate 
the  Jewish  ritual,  and  also  ignored  entirely  the  doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment as  taught  in  the  New  Testament,  denying  even  the  very  fact  of  our 
Savior's  crucifixion,  he  made  the  "day  of  sacrifice"  the  great  central  fes- 
tival of  his  religion. 

There  is  a  very  remarkable  Hadis,  related  by  Ayesha,  who  states 
that  Mohammed  said :  "Man  hath  not  done  anything  on  the  Tdu  '1-Azha 
more  pleasing  to  God  than  spilling  blood ;  for  verily  the  animal  sacri- 
ficed will  come,  on  the  day  of  resurrection,  with  its  horns,  its  hair,  and 
its  hoofs,  and  will  make  the  scale  of  his  (good)  actions  heavy.  Verily,  its 
blood  reacheth  the  acceptance  of  God,  before  it  falleth  upon  the  ground, 
therefore,  be  joyful  in  it." 

Mohammed  has  thus  become  a  witness  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  that  "without  shedding  of  blood,  there  is  no  remission."  The 
animal  sacrificed  must  be  without  blemish,  and  of  full  age;  but  it  may 
be  either  a  goat,  a  sheep,  a  cow,  or  camel. 

The  religious  part  of  the  festival  is  observed  as  follows :  The  peo- 
ple assemble  in  the  morning  for  prayer,  in  the  Tdgah,  or  place  erected 
outside  the  city  for  these  special  festival  prayers.  The  whole  congre- 
gation then  standing  in  the  usual  order,  the  Imam  takes  his  place  in 
front  of  them  and  leads  them  in  two  rak'ahs  of  prayer.  After  prayers 
the  Imam  ascends  the  mimbar  or  pulpit  and  delivers  a  Khutbah,  or  ora- 
tion, on  the  subject  of  the  festival. 

The  Khutbah  being  ended,  the  people  all  return  to  their  homes. 
The  head  of  the  family  then  takes  a  sheep,  or  a  cow,  or  a  goat,  or  a 
camel,  and  turning  its  head  towards  Mecca  says : 

"In  the  name  of  the  great  God. 

"Verily,  my  prayers,  my  sacrifice,  my  life,  my  death,  belong  to  God, 
the  Lord  of  the  worlds.  He  has  no  partner;  that  is  what  I  am  bidden: 
for  I  am  first  of  those  who  are  Moslem." 

And  then  he  slays  the  animal.  The  flesh  of  the  animal  is  then 
divided  into  three  portions,  one-third  being  given  to  relations,  one-third 
to  the  poor,  and  the  remaining  third  reserved  for  the  family.  Quite  apart 
from  its  religious  ceremonies,  the  festival  is  observed  as  a  great  time  of 
rejoicing,  and  the  holiday  is  kept  for  two  or  three  days  in  a  similar  way 
to  that  of  the  minor  festival  or  the  Tdu  '1-Fitr. 


RELIGIONS~OFTPERSIA. 


'333 


THE  PERFORMANCE  OF  RELIGIOUS  DUTIES. 

Strictly  according  to  Mohammedan  law,  it  is  not  lawful  to  accept 
any  remuneration  for  the  performance  of  religious  duties.  But  these 
injunctions  are  now  totally  disregarded,  and  fees  are  taken  for  almost 
every  religious  duty  performed  by  an  Imam.  The  teaching  of  the  Hida- 
yah  on  the  subject  is  as  follows : 

"It  is  not  lawful  to  accept  a  recompense  for  summoning  the  people 
to  prayers,  or  for  the  performance  of  pilgrimage,  or  of  the  duties  of  an 
Imam,  or  for  teaching  the  Koran,  or  the  law ;  for  it  is  a  general  rule, 
with  our  doctors,  that  no  recompense  can  be  received  for  the  perform- 
ance of  any  duty  purely  of  a  religious  nature.  According  to  Shafer,  it  is 
allowed  to  receive  pay  for  the  performance  of  any  religious  duty  which 
is  not  required  of  the  hireling  in  virtue  of  a  divine  ordinance,  as  this  is 
only  accepting  a  recompense  for  a  certain  service ;  and  as  the  acts  above 
described  are  not  ordained  upon  the  hireling,  it  is  consequently  lawful 
to  receive  a  recompense  for  them.  The  argument  of  our  doctors  upon 
this  point  are  twofold.  First,  the  Prophet  has  said,  'Read  the  Koran, 
but  do  not  receive  any  recompense  for  so  doing;'  and  he  also  directed 
Othman-bin-Abeeyas,  that  if  he  were  appointed  a  Mawzin  (a  crier  to 
prayer),  he  should  not  take  any  wages.  Secondly,  where  an  act  of  piety 
is  performed,  it  springs  solely  from  the  performer  (whence  regard  is  had 
to  his  competency),  and  consequently  he  is  not  entitled  to  any  recom- 
pense from  another,  as  in  the  cases  of  fasting  or  prayer.  A  teacher  of 
the  Koran,  moreover,  is  incapable  of  instructing  another  in  it,  but  by 
means  of  qualities  existing  in  his  scholar,  namely,  capacity  and  docility, 
and  therefore  undertakes  a  thing  the  performance  of  which  does  not 
depend  upon  himself,  which  is  consequently  invalid.  Some  of  our  mod- 
ern doctors,  however,  hold  it  lawful  to  receive  wages  for  teaching  the 
Koran  in  the  present  age,  because  an  indifference  has  taken  place  with 
respect  to  religion,  whence,  if  people  were  to  withhold  from  paying  a 
recompense  for  instruction  in  the  sacred  writings,  they  would  in  time 
be  disregarded; — and  decrees  pass  accordingly. 

"It  is  not  lawful  to  receive  wages  for  singing  or  lamentation,  or  for 
any  other  species  of  public  exhibition,  as  this  is  taking  a  recompense  for 
an  act  which  is  of  a  criminal  nature,  and  acts  of  that  nature  do  not 
entitle  to  a  recompense  in  virtue  of  a  contract." 

THE  DYING. 

Very  special  instructions  are  given  in  Moslem  books  as  to  the 
treatment  of  the  dying.    In  the  Durra'l-Mukhtar  (p.  88),  the  friends  of 


334 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  dying  arc  recommended,  if  possible,  to  turn  the  head  of  the  dying 
person  towards  Mecca ;  but  if  this  be  not  convenient,  his  feet  should 
be  placed  in  that  direction  and  his  head  slightly  raised.  The  Kalima- 
tu'sh-Shahadah  should  then  be  recited,  and  the  Sura  Ya  Sin  (xxxvi) 
and  Saruta  'r-Ra'd  (xiii)  should  be  read  from  the  Koran.  When  the 
spirit  has  departed  from  the  body,  the  mouth  should  be  tied  up  and  the 
eyes  closed  and  the  arms  straightened,  and  the  body  should  be  per- 
fumed, and  no  unclean  person  should  be  suffered  to  approach  the  corpse. 
Immediate  steps  should  then  be  taken  for  the  washing  of  the  corpse. 

VISITING  THE  SICK. 

Arabic  'iyadah.  An  incumbent  religious  duty  enjoined  by  Moham- 
med on  his  followers.  The  following  traditions  illustrate  his  teaching  on 
the  subject  (Mishkat,  book  v.,  ch.  i): 

"When  a  Moslem  visits  a  sick  brother  he  gathers  the  fruits  of  Para- 
dise from  the  time  he  leaves  his  home  until  he  returns. 

"If  a  Moslem  visits  a  sick  person,  and  say  seven  times,  T  ask  the 
Almighty  God,  who  is  Lord  of  the  great  throne,  to  give  thee  health,' 
the  prayer  shall  be  granted,  unless  the  appointed  time  of  his  death  has 
surely  come. 

"Verily,  God  will  say  at  the  Day  of  Resurrection,  'O  sons  of  Adam ! 
I  was  sick  and  ye  did  not  visit  me.'  And  the  sons  of  Adam  will  say,  'O 
OUr  Defender!  how  could  we  visit  Thee,  for  Thou  art  the  Lord  of  the 
Universe  and  art  free  from  sickness?'  And  God  will  say,  'O  men!  did 
you  not  know  that  such  a  one  of  my  servants  was  sick,  and  you  did  not 
visit  him  ?  Do  you  not  know  that  had  you  visited  that  servant  you 
would  have  met  me  there  ?'  " 

Ayesha  says :  "When  anyone  of  us  was  sick,  the  Prophet  used  to 
rub  his  hands  upon  the  sick  person's  body,  after  which  he  would  say, 
'O  Lord  of  man  !  take  away  this  pain  and  give  health;  for  Thou  art  the 
giver  of  health;  there  is  no  health  but  Thine  that  health  which  leaveth 
no  sickness'. 

"When  any  person  complained  of  being  out  of  order,  or  having  a 
wound  or  sore,  the  Prophet  would  say,  when  passing  his  finger  over 
the  part  affected,  Tn  the  name  of  God,  the  earth  of  our  ground  mixed 
with  the  spittle  of  our  mouth  ;  we  have  done  this  in  order  to  restore  the 
sick  to  health,  by  permission  of  our  Lord.'  " 

DEATH.    ARABIC  MAUT;  WAFAT. 

It  is  distinctly  taught  in  the  Koran  that  the  hour  of  death  is  fixed 
for  every  living  creature. 


EELIGIONS:OF  PERSIA. 


335 


Sura  xvi  163 :  "If  God  were  to  punish  men  for  their  wrongdoing, 
He  would  not  leave  on  the  earth  a  single  living  creature ;  but  He  re- 
quites them  until  a  stated  time ;  and  when  their  time  comes  they  cannot 
delay  it  an  hour,  nor  can  they  hasten  it." 

Sura  iii :  182 :  "Every  soul  must  taste  death,  and  ye  shall  only  be 
paid  your  hire  on  the  day  of  resurrection." 

Sura  i :  17 :  "The  agony  of  death  shall  come  in  truth,  that  is  what 
thou  didst  shun." 

In  the  Traditions,  Mohammed  has  taught  that  it  is  sinful  to  wish 
for  death :  "Wish  not  for  death,  not  even  if  thou  art  a  doer  of  good 
works,  for  peradventure  thou  mayst  increase  them  with  an  increase  of 
life.  Nor  even  if  thou  art  a  sinner,  for  with  increase  of  life  thou  mayst 
obtain  God's  pardon." 

One  day  the  Prophet  said :  "Whosoever  loves  to  meet  God,  God 
will  love  to  meet  him,  and  whoever  dislikes  to  meet  God,  God  will  dis- 
like to  meet  him."  Then  Ayesha  said,  "Truly,  we  all  dislike  death  and 
consider  it  a  great  affliction."  The  Prophet  replied,  "Thou  dost  not 
understand  me.  When  death  comes  near  a  believer,  then  God  gives  him 
a  spirit  of  resignation,  and  so  it  is,  that  there  is  nothing  which  a  be- 
liever likes  so  much  as  death." 

Al-Bara'ibu  'Azib,  one  of  the  Companions,  says :  "I  came  out  with 
the  Prophet  at  the  funeral  of  one  of  the  assistants,  and  we  arrived  just  at 
the  grave  before  they  had  interred  the  body,  and  the  Prophet  sat  down, 
and  we  sat  around  him  with  our  heads  down,  and  were  so  silent  that 
you  might  say  that  birds  were  sitting  upon  our  heads.  And  there  was 
a  stick  in  the  Prophet's  hand  with  which  he  kept  striking  the  grounds. 
Then  he  raised  his  head  and  said  twice  or  thrice  to  his  companions, 
'Seek  the  protection  of  God  from  the  punishment  of  the  grave.'  After 
that  he  said :  'Verily,  when  a  Moslem  separateth  from  the  world  and 
bringeth  his  soul  to  futurity,  angels  descend  to  him  from  the  celestial 
regions,  whose  faces  are  white.  You  might  say  their  faces  are  the  sun, 
and  they  have  a  shroud  of  the  shrouds  of  paradise,  and  perfumes  there- 
from. So'  they  sit  apart  from  the  deceased,  as  far  as  the  eyes  can  see. 
After  which  the  Angel  of  Death  comes  to  the  deceased  and  sits  at  his 
head,  and  says,  'O  pure  soul,  come  forth  to  God's  pardon  and  pleasure.' 
Then  the  soul  comes  out,  issuing  like  water  from  a  bag,  and  the  Angel 
of  Death  takes  it;  and  when  he  takes  it,  the  angels  do  not  allow  it  to  re- 
main in  his  hands  for  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  But  when  the  Angel  of 
Death  has  taken  the  soul  of  a  servant  of  God,  he  resigns  it  to  his  assis- 
tants, in  whose. hands  is  a  shroud,  and  they  put  it  into  the  shroud  and 


336 


PERSIATBYJA^PERSIAN. 


with  the  perfumes,  when  a  fragrance  issues  from  the  soul  like  the  smell 
of  the  best  musk  that  is  to  be  found  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Then  the 
angels  carry  it  upwards,  and  they  do  not  pass  by  any  concourse  of  angels 
who  do  not  say,  'What  is  this  pur£  soul  and  who  is  owner  of  it  ?'  And 
they  say,  'Such  a  one,  the  son  of  such  a  one,'  calling  him  by  the  best 
names  by  which  he  was  known  in  the  world,  till  they  reach  the  lowest 
region  of  heaven  with  him.  And  the  angels  ask  the  door  to  be  opened 
for  him,  which  is  done.  The  angels  follow  it  through  each  heaven,  the 
angel  of  one  region  to  those  of  the  next,  and  so  on  till  it  reaches  the 
seventh  heaven,  when  God  say,  'Write  the  name  of  My  servant  in 
Tlliyun,  and  return  him  towards  the  earth,  that  is,  to  his  body,  which 
is  buried  in  the  earth,  because  I  have  created  man  from  earth  and  return 
him  to  it,  and  will  bring  him  out  from  it  again  as  I  brought  him  out  at 
first.'  Then  the  souls  are  returned  into  their  bodies,  when  two  angels 
(Nunkar  and  Nakir)  come  to  the  dead  man  and  cause  him  to  sit  up,  and 
say  to  him,  'Who  is  thy  Lord  ?'  He  replies,  'My  Lord  is  God.'  Then 
they  say,  'What  is  thy  religion?'  He  says,  'Islam.'  Then  they  say, 
'What  is  this  man  who  is  sent  to  you?'  (i.  e.,  the  Prophet.)  He 
says,  'He  is  the  Prophet  of  God.'  Then  they  say,  'What  is  your  proof 
of  his  mission?'  He  says,  T  read  the  book  of  God,  and  believed  in  it,  and 
I  proved  it  to  be  true.'  Then,  a  voice  calls  out  from  the  celestial  regions, 
'My  servant  hath  spoken  true,  therefore  throw  for  him  a  bed  from  Para- 
dise, and  dress  him  in  clothes  from  Paradise,  and  open  a  door  for  him 
towards  Paradise.'  Then  peace  and  perfumes  come  for  him  from  Para- 
dise, and  his  grave  is  enlarged  for  him  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see.  Then 
a  man  with  a  beautiful  face  comes  to  him,  elegantly  dressed,  and  per- 
fumed, and  he  says,  'Be  joyful  in  that  which  has  made  thee  so,  this  is 
the  day  which  was  promised  thee.'  Then  the  dead  person  says  to  him, 
'Who  art  thou,  for  thy  face  is  perfectly  beautiful?'  And  the  man  re- 
plies, T  am  thy  good  deeds.'  Then  the  dead  person  cries  out,  'O  Lord, 
hasten  the  resurrection  for  my  sake !' 

"But,"  continued  the  Prophet,  "when  an  infidel  dies,  and  is  about 
to  pass  from  the  world  and  bring  his  soul  to  futurity,  blackfaced  angels 
come  down  to  him  and  with  them  sackcloths.  Then  they  sit  from  the 
dead  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see,  after  which  the  Angel  of  Death  comes  in 
order  to  sit  at  his  head,  and  says,  'O  impure  soul !  come  forth  to  the 
wrath  of  God.'  Then  the  soul  is  disturbed  in  the  infidel's  body.  Then 
the  Angel  of  Death  draws  it  out  as  a  hot  squit  is  drawn  out  of  wet  wool. 

"Then  the  Angel  of  Death  takes  the  soul  of  the  infidel,  and  having 
taken  it,  the  angels  do  not  allow  it  to  remain  with  him  the  twinkling  of  an 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


337 


eye,  but  they  take  it  in  the  sackcloth,  and  a  disagreeable  smell  issues  from 
the  soul,  like  that  of  the  most  feted  carcass  that  can  be  met  with  upon 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Then  the  angels  carry  it  upwards  and  do  not  pass 
by  any  assembly  of  angels  who  do  not  ask  whose  filthy  soul  is  this. 
They  answer  such  an  one,  the  son  of  such  an  one,  and  they  mention  him 
by  the  worst  names  that  he  bore  in  the  world,  till  they  arrive  with  it  at 
the  lowest  heaven,  and  call  the  door  to  be  opened,  but  it  cannot  be  done. 
Then  the  Prophet  repeated  this  verse:  'The  doors  of  the  celestial  re- 
gions shall  not  be  opened  for  them,  nor  shall  they  enter  into  Paradise 
till  a  camel  passes  through  the  eye  of  a  needle.'  Then  God  says,  'Write 
his  history  in  Sijjin,'  which  is  the  lowest  earth;  then  his  soul  is  thrown 
down  with  violence.  Afterwards  the  Prophet  repeated  this  verse :  'Unite 
no  partner  with  God,  for  whoever  uniteth  gods  with  God  is  like  that 
which  falleth  from  high,  and  the  birds  snatch  it  away,  or  the  wind  waft- 
eth  it  to  a  distant  place.'  Then  his  soul  is  replaced  in  his  body,  and  two 
angels  (Munkar  and  Nakir)  come  to  him  and  set  him  up,  and  say,  'Who 
is  thy  Lord?'  He  says,  'Alas!  alas!  I  do  not  know.'  Then  they  say, 
'What  is  thy  religion?'  He  says,  'Alas!  alas!  I  do  not  know.'  And  they 
say  to  him,  'What  is  the  condition  of  the  man  who  is  sent  down  to  you  ?' 
He  says,  'Alas !  alas !  I  do  not  know.'  Then  a  voice  comes  from  above, 
saying,  'He  lieth ;  therefore  spread  a  bed  of  fire  for  him  and  open  a  door 
for  him  toward  hell.'  Then  the  heat  and  hot  winds  of  hell  come  to  him, 
and  his  grave  is  made  tight  upon  him,  so  as  to  squeeze  his  ribs.  And  a 
man  with  a  hideous  countenance  comes  to  him  shockingly  dressed,  of  a 
vile  smell,  and  he  says,  'Be  joyful  in  that  which  maketh  thee  miserable ; 
this  is  the  day  that  was  promised  thee.'  Then  the  dead  man  says,  'Who 
art  thou?  Thy  face  is  hideous,  and  brings  wickedness.'  He  says,  T  am 
thy  impure  actions.'  Then  the  dead  person  says,  'O  Lord,  delay  the 
resurrection  on  my  account !'  " 

The  ceremonies  attending  the  death  of  a  Moslem  are  described  as 
follows  by  Jafir  Sharif  in  Herklot's  Qanun-i-Islam  : 

Four  or  five  days  previous  to  a  sick  man's  approaching  his  dissolu- 
tion, he  makes  his  will  in  favor  of  his  son  or  any  other  person,  in  the 
presence  of  two  or  more  witnesses,  and  either  delivers  it  to  others  or 
retains  it  by  him.  In  it  he  likewise  appoints  his  executor.  When  about 
to  expire,  any  learned  reader  of  the  Koran  is  sent  for,  and  requested  to 
repeat  with  a  loud  voice  the  Sura  Ya  Sin  (or  chap,  xxxvi).  in  order  that 
the  spirit  of  the  man,  by  the  hearing  of  its  sound,  may  experience  ease 
and  contentment.  It  is  said  that  when  the  spirit  was  commanded  to 
enter  the  body  of  Adam,  the  soul  having  looked  into  it  once,  observed 


338 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


that  it  was  a  bad  and  dark  place,  and  unworthy  of  its  presence !  Then 
the  Just  and  Most  Holy  God  illuminated  the  body  of  Adam  with  "lamps 
of  light,"  and  commanded  the  spirit  to  re-enter.  It  went  in  a  second 
time,  beheld  the  light,  and  saw  the  whole  dwelling,  and  said,  "There  is 
no  pleasing  sound  here  for  me  to  listen  to."  It  is  generally  understood 
from  the  best  works  of  the  mystics  of  the  East,  that  it  was  owing  to  this 
circumstance  that  the  Almighty  created  music.  The  holy  spirit,  on  hear- 
ing the  sound  of  this  music  became  so  delighted  that  it  entered  Adam's 
body.  Commentators  on  the  Koran,  expositors  of  the  Traditions  and 
divines  having  written,  that  that  sound  resembled  that  produced  by  the 
repeating  of  the  Saratu  Ya  Sin ;  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  read  at  the 
hour  of  death  this  chapter  for  tranquilizing  the  soul. 

The  Kalimatu'sh-shahadah  (creed)  is  also  read  with  an  audible  voice 
by  those  present.  They  do  not  require  the  patient  to  read  it  himself,  as 
at  such  a  time  he  is  in  a  distressing  situation,  and  not  in  a  fit  state  of 
mind  to  repeat  the  Kalimah. 

Most  people  lie  insensible,  and  cannot  even  speak,  but  the  pious 
retain  their  mortal  faculties  and  converse  till  the  very  last.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  most  serious  religious  rule  amongst  us,  viz.,  that  if  a  person 
desire  the  patient  to  repeat  the  Kalimah,  and  the  sick  man  expires  with- 
out being  able  to  do  so,  his  faith  is  considered  dubious ;  whilst  the  man 
who  directed  him  so  to  do  thereby  incurs  guilt.  It  is  therefore  best  that 
the  sitters-by  read  it,  in  anticipation  of  the  hope  that  the  sick  man,  by 
hearing  the  sound  of  it,  may  bring  it  to  his  recollection,  and  repeat  it 
either  aloud  or  in  his  own  mind.  In  general,  when  a  person  is  on  the 
point  of  death,  they  pour  sherbet,  made  of  sugar  and  water,  down  his 
throat,  to  facilitate  the  exit  of  the  vital  spark,  and  some  procure  the  holy 
water  of  the  Zamzam  well  at  Mecca.  The  moment  the  spirit  has  fled 
the  mouth  is  closed ;  because  if  left  open,  it  would  present  a  disagreeable 
spectacle.  The  two  great  toes  are  brought  in  contact  and  fastened  to- 
gether there  with  a  thin  slip  of  cloth,  to  prevent  the  legs  remaining 
apart.  They  burn  perfumes  near  the  corpse.  Should  the  individual  have 
died  in  the  evening,  the  shrouding  and  burial  take  place  before  midnight; 
if  he  die  at  a  later  hour,  or  should  the  articles  required  not  be  procurable 
at  that  late  hour,  he  is  buried  early  on  the  following  morning.  The 
sooner  the  sepulchral  rites  are  performed  the  better,  for  it  is  not  proper 
to  keep  a  corpse  long  in  the  house,  and  for  this  reason  the  Prophet  said 
that  if  he  was  a  good  man,  the  sooner  he  is  buried  the  more  quickly  he 
will  reach  heaven;  if  a  bad  man,  he  should  be  speedily  buried,  in  order 
that  his  unhappy  lot  may  not  fall  upon  others  in  the  house ;  as  also  that 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


339 


the  relatives  of  the  deceased  may  not,  by  holding  the  corpse,  weep  too 
much  or  go  without  food.  There  are  male  and  female  washers,  whose 
province  it  is  to  wash  and  shroud  the  corpse  for  payment.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  relatives  do  it  themselves.  In  undertaking  the  operation 
of  washing,  they  dig  a  hole  in  the  earth  to  receive  the  water  used  in  the 
process,  and  prevent  its  spreading  over  a  large  surface,  as  some  men 
and  women  consider  it  bad  to  tread  on  such  water.  Then  they  place 
the  corpse  on  a  bed,  country  cot,  plank,  or  straw.  Some  women,  who 
are  particular  in  these  matters,  are  afraid  even  to  venture  near  the  place 
where  the  body  has  been  washed.  Having  stripped  the  corpse  and 
laid  it  on  its  back,  with  its  head  to  the  east  and  feet  to  the  west,  they 
cover  it  with  a  cloth— reaching,  if  it  be  a  man,  from  the  navel  to  the 
calves  of  the  legs,  if  a  woman,  extending  from  the  chest  to  the  feet — 
and  wash  it  with  warm  or  cold  water.  They  raise  the  body  gently  and 
rub  the  abdomen  four  or  five  times,  then  pour  plenty  of  water,  and 
wash  off  all  the  dirt  and  filth  with  soap,  etc.,  by  means  of  flocks  of  cotton 
or  cloth;  after  which,  laying  the  body  on  the  sides,  they  wash  them; 
then  the  back,  and  the  rest  of  the  body ;  but  gently,  because  life  having 
but  just  departed,  the  body  is  still  warm  and  not  insensible  to  pain. 
After  this  they  wash  and  clean  it  well,  so  that  no  offensive  smell  may 
remain.  They  never  throw  water  into  the  nostrils  or  mouth,  but  clean 
them  with  wicks  of  cloth  or  cotton.  After  that  they  perform  wuzu'  for 
him,  i.  e.,  they  wash  his  mouth,  the  two  upper  extremities  up  to  the 
elbows,  make  masah  on  his  head,  and  throw  water  on  his  feet;  these 
latter  constituting  the  four  parts  of  the  wuzu'  ceremony.  They  then 
put  some  camphor  with  water  into  a  new  large  earthen  pot,  and  with 
a  new  earthen  pot  they  take  out  water  and  pour  it  three  times,  first  from 
the  head  to  the  feet,  then  from  the  right  shoulder  to  the  feet,  lastly  from 
the  left  shoulder  to  the  feet.  Every  time  that  a  pot  of  water  is  poured 
the  Kalimatu'sh-shahadah  is  repeated,  either  by  the  person  washing  or 
another.  Having  bathed  the  body  and  wiped  it  dry  with  a  new  piece 
of  cloth,  they  put  on  the  shroud.  The  shroud  consists  of  three  pieces  of 
cloth,  if  for  a  man,  and  five,  if  for  a  woman. 

The  corpse  must  be  carefully  brought  by  itself  from  the  place  where 
it  was  bathed,  and  laid  in  the  shrouds.  Surmah  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
eyes  with  a  tent  made  of  paper  rolled  up,  with  a  ring,  or  with  a  pice,  and 
camphor  to  seven  places,  viz.,  on  the  forehead,  including  the  nose,  on 
the  palms  of  the  hands,  on  the  knees  and  great  toes,  after  which  the  dif- 
ferent shrouds  are  to  be  properly  put  on  one  after  another  as  they  lay. 
The  color  of  the  shroud  is  to  be  white ;  no  other  is  admissible.    It  is  of 


340 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


no  consequence,  however,  if  a  colored  cloth  is  spread  over  the  bier; 
which,  after  the  funeral,  or  after  the  fortieth  day,  is  given  away  to  the 
fagir  who  resides  in  the  burying-ground,  or  to  any  other  person,  in 
charity.  Previous  to  shrouding  the  body,  they  tear  shreds  from  the 
cloths  for  the  purpose  of  trying  them  on ;  and  after  shrouding  the  body, 
they  tie  one  band  above  the  head,  a  second  below  the  feet,  and  a  third 
about  the  chest,  leaving  about  six  or  seven  fingers'  breadth  of  cloth 
above  the  head  and  below  the  feet,  to  admit  of  the  ends  being  fastened. 
Should  the  relict  of  the  deceased  be  present,  they  undo  the  cloth  of  the 
head  and  show  her  his  face,  and  get  her,  in  the  presence  of  two  wit- 
nesses, to  remit  the  dowry  which  he  had  settled  upon  her ;  but  it  is  prefer- 
able that  she  remit  it  while  he  is  still  alive.  Should  the  wife,  owing  to 
journeying,  be  at  a  distance  from  him,  she  is  to  remit  it  on  receiving  the 
intelligence  of  his  demise. 

GRAVE  AND  BURIAL  CEREMONIES. 

The  graves  of  the  Mohammedans  are  so  dug  as  to  allow  the  body 
to  lie  with  its  face  toward  Mecca.  It  is  usual  to  dig  a  grave  the 
depth  equal  to  the  height  of  the  breast  of  a  middle-sized  man,  and  to 
make  a  recess  at  the  bottom,  which  is  called  lahd,  in  which  the  body  is 
placed.  The  body  having  been  placed  in  the  recess,  it  is  closed  with 
unburnt  bricks,  and  the  grave  is  filled  with  earth  and  a  mound  raised 
over  it. 

The  traditions  of  Mohammed,  as  well  as  the  works  of  Moslem 
doctors,  all  teach  that  a  dead  body  is  conscious  of  pain,  and  therefore 
great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  any  pressure  upon  the  body. 

Amir  relates  that  his  father  Sa'd  ibu  Abi  Waggas  said  on  his  death- 
bed, "Make  a  lahd  for  me  toward  Mecca,  and  put  unburnt  bricks  upon 
my  grave,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  the  prophet.  Safyan  at-Tammar 
relates  that  he  "saw  the  prophet's  grave,  and  the  top  of  it  was  like  a 
camel's  back." 

Ibu  'Abbas  says,  "a  red  cloth  was  placed  upon  the  prophet's  grave." 

Jabir  says,  "The  prophet  prohibited  building  with  mortar  on  graves, 
and  also  placing  inscriptions  upon  them."  But  notwithstanding  this 
tradition,  masonry  tombs  are  most  common  in  all  parts  of  Islam,  and 
form  some  of  the  most  striking  specimens  of  Mohammedan  architecture. 

The  term  Janazah  is  used  both  for  the  bier  and  for  the  Moham- 
medan service.  The  burial  service  is  founded  upon  the  practice  of 
Mohammed,  and  varies  but  little  in  different  countries,  although  the 
ceremonies  connected  with  the  funeral  procession  are  diversified.  In 


RELIGIONS  OP  PERSIA. 


341 


Egypt  and  Bukhara,  for  instance,  the  male  relations  and  friends  of  the 
deceased  precede  the  corpse,  whilst  the  female  mourners  follow  behind. 
In  India  and  Afghanistan,  women  do  not  usually  attend  funerals,  and 
the  friends  and  relatives  of  the  deceased  walk  behind  the  bier.  There 
is  a  tradition  amongst  some  Mohammedans  that  no  one  should  pre- 
cede the  corpse,  as  the  angels  go  before.  Funeral  processions  in  Afghan- 
istan are  usually  very  simple  in  their  arrangement,  and  are  said  to  be 
more  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  prophet  than  those  of 
Egypt  and  Turkey.  It  is  considered  a  very  meritorious  act  to  carry  the 
bier,  and  four  from  among  the  near  relations,  every  now  and  then  relived 
by  an  equal  number,  carry  it  on  their  shoulders.  Unlike  our  Christian 
custom1  of  walking  slowly  to  the  grave,  the  Mohammedans  carry  their 
dead  quickly  to  the  place  of  interment;  for  Mohammed  is  related  to 
have  said,  that  it  is  good  to  carry  the  dead  quickly  to  the  grave,  to 
cause  the  righteous  person  to  arrive  soon  at  happiness,  and  if  he  be 
a  bad  man,  it  is  well  to  put  wickedness  away  from  one's  shoulders. 
Funeral  should  always  be  attended  on  foot ;  for  it  is  said  that 
Mohammed  on  one  occasion  rebuked  his  people  for  following  on 
horseback.  ''Have  you  no  shame?"  said  he.  "since  Gods  and  angels 
go  on  foot  and  you  go  upon  the  backs  of  quadrupeds?"  It  is  a  highly 
meritorious  act  to  attend  funerals,  whether  it  be  that  of  a  Moslem,  a 
Jew,  or  a  Christian.  There  are,  however,  two  traditions  which  appear 
to  mark  a  change  of  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  prophet  of  Arabia  toward 
the  Jew  and  Christians. 

"A  bier  passed  by  the  prophet  and  he  stood  up ;  and  it  was  said  to 
the  prophet,  this  is  the  bier  of  a  Jew.  'It  is  the  holder  of  a  soul,'  he 
replied,  'from  which  we  should  take  warning  and  fear.'  "  This  rule  is 
said  to  have  been  abrogated  for  "on  one  occasion  the  prophet,  sitting 
on  the  road  when  the  bier  passed,  and  the  prophet  disliked  that  the  bier 
of  a  Jew  should  be  higher  than  his  head,  and  he  therefore  stood  up." 
Notwithstanding  these  contradictory  traditions  we  believe  that  in  all 
countries  Mohammedans  are  wont  to  pay  great  respect  to  the  funerals 
of  both  Jews  and  Christians. 

The  Mohammedan  funeral  service  is  not  recited  in  the  graveyard, 
it  being  too  polluted  a  place  for  so  sacred  an  offer,  but  either  in  a 
mosque,  or  in  some  open  space  near  the  dwelling  of  the  deceased  person, 
or  the  graveyard.  The  owner  of  the  corpse,  the  nearest  relative,  is  the 
proper  person  to  recite  the  service,  but  it  is  usually  said  by  the  family 
Imam,  or  the  Qazi. 

The  following  is  the  order  of  the  service : 


342 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Some  one  present  calls  out : 

"Here  begin  the  prayers  for  the  dead." 

Then  those  present  arranged  themselves  in  three,  five,  or  seven 
rows  opposite  the  corpse,  with  their  faces  Qidlah-wards  (i.  e.,  toward 
Mecca).  The  Imam  stands  in  front  of  the  ranks,  opposite  the  head 
(the  Shi-ahs  stand  opposite  the  loins  of  a  man)  of  the  corpse,  if  it  be  that 
of  a  male,  or  the  waist,  if  it  be  that  of  a  female. 

The  whole  company  having  taken  up  the  Qiyan,  or  standing 
position,  the  Imam  recites  the  Niyah. 

"I  propose  to  perform  prayers  to  God  for  this  dead  person,  con- 
sisting of  four  Takbirs." 

Then  placing  his  hands  to  the  lobes  of  his  ears,  he  says  the  first 
Takbir : 

"God  is  great!" 

Then  folding  his  hands,  the  right  hand  placed  upon  the  left,  below 
the  nazel,  he  recites  the  Subhan : 
"Holiness  to  Thee,  O  God, 
And  to  Thee  be  praise ; 
Great  is  Thy  name ; 
Great  is  Thy  greatness  ; 
Great  is  Thy  praise; 
There  is  no  Deity  but  Thee." 
Then  follows  the  second  Takbir: 
"God  is  great !" 
Then  the  Dnrud : 

"O  God,  have  mercy  on  Mohammed  and  upon  his  descendants,  as 
Thou  didst  bestow  mercy,  and  peace,  and  blessing,  and  compassion,  and 
great  kindness  upon  Abraham  and  upon  his  descendants. 

Thou  art  praised  and  Thou  art  great ! 

"O  God,  bless  Mohammed  and  bis  descendants,  as  Thou  didst 
bless  and  didst  have  compassion  and  great  kindness  upon  Abraham 
and  upon  his  descendants." 

Then  follows  the  third  Tabir: 

"God  is  great!" 

After  which  the  following  prayer  (Du'a)  is  recited : 
"O  God,  forgive  our  living  and  dead  and  those  of  us  who  are 
present,  and  those  who  are  absent,  and  our  children,  and  our  full  grown 
persons,  our  men  and  our  women.  O  God,  those  whom  Thou  dost 
keep  alive  amongst  us,  keep  alive  in  Islam,  and  those  whom  Thou  cau- 
sest  to  die,  let  them  die  in  the  faith." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


343 


Then  follows  the  fourth  Takbir : 
"God  is  great !" 

Turning  the  head  round  to  the  right,  he  says : 
"Peace  and  mercy  be  to  Thee." 
Turning  the  head  round  to  the  left,  he  says : 
"Peace  and  mercy  be  to  Thee." 

The  Takbir  is  recited  by  the  Imam  aloud,  but  the  Subhan,  the 
Salam,  the  Dnrud,  and  the  Du'a,  are  recited  by  the  Imam,  and  the 
people  in  a  low  voice. 

The  people  then  seat  themselves  on  the  ground,  and  raise  their  heads 
in  silent  prayer,  in  behalf  of  the  deceased's  soul,  and,  afterwards  address- 
ing the  relatives,  say:  "It  is  the  decree  of  God."  To  which  the  chief 
mourner  replies :  "I  am  pleased  with  the  will  of  God."  He  then  gives 
permission  to  the  people  to  retire  by  saying:  "There  is  permission 
to  depart." 

Those  who  wish  to  return  to  their  homes  do  so  at  this  time,  and 
the  rest  proceed  to  the  grave.  The  corpse  is  then  placed  on  its 
back  in  the  grave,  with  the  head  to  the  north  and  feet  to  the 
south,  the  face  being  turned  toward  Mecca.  The  persons  who 
place  the  corpse  in  the  grave  repeat  the  following  sentence:  "We 
commit  thee  to  earth  in  the  name  of  God  and  in  the  religion  of  the 
prophet." 

The  bands  of  the  shroud  having  been  loosened,  the  recess,  which  is 
called  the  lahd,  is  closed  in  with  unburnt  bricks  and  the  grave  filled  in 
with  earth;  in  some  countries  it  is  usual  to  recite  verse  57  of  the  20th 
Sura  of  the  Koran  as  the  clods  of  earth  are  thrown  into  the  grave,  but 
this  practice  is  objected  to  by  the  Wakhabis,  and  by  many  learned 
divines.  The  verse  is  as  follows :  "From  it  (the  earth)  have  We  (God) 
created  you,  and  unto  it  will  We  return  you,  and  out  of  it  will  We  bring 
you  forth  the  second  time."  After  the  burial,  the  people  offer  a  fatihah 
(i.  e.,  the  first  chapter  of  the  Koran)  in  the  name  of  the  deceased,  and 
again  when  they  have  proceeded  about  forty  paces  from  the  grave  they 
offer  another  fatihah;  for  at  this  juncture,  it  is  said,  the  two  angels, 
Munku  and  Maku,  examine  the  deceased  as  to  his  faith  (punishment 
of  the  grave).  After  this,  food  is  distributed  to  beggars  and  religious 
mendicants  as  a  propitiatory  offering  to  God,  in  the  name  of  the 
deceased  person.  If  the  grave  be  for  the  body  of  a  woman,  it  should  be 
the  height  of  a  man's  chest,  if  for  a  man,  to  the  height  of  the  waist.  At 
the  bottom  of  the  grave  the  recess  is  made  on  the  side  to  receive  the 
corpse,  which  is  called  the  lahed,  or  lahd.    The  dead  are  seldom 


344 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


interred  in  coffins,  although  they  are  not  prohibited.  To  build  tombs 
with  stones  or  burn  bricks,  or  to  write  a  verse  of  the  Koran  upon 
them,  is  forbidden  in  the  Hadis ;  but  large  stone  and  brick  tombs  are 
common  to  all  Mohammedan  countries,  and  very  frequently  they  bear 
inscriptions.  On  the  third  day  of  the  burial  of  the  dead  it  is  usual 
for  the  relatives  to  visit  the  grave  and  to  recite  selections  from  the 
Koran.  Those  who  can  afford  to  pay  Manlavis,  employ  these  learned 
men  to  recite  the  whole  of  the  Koran  at  the  graves  of  their  deceased 
relatives,  and  the  Koran  is  divided  into  sections  to  admit  of  its  being 
recited  by  the  several  Manlavis  at  once.  During  the  days  of  mourning 
the  relatives  abstain  from  wearing  any  article  of  dress  of  a  bright  color, 
and  their  soiled  garments  remain  unchanged.  A  funeral  procession 
in  Egypt  is  graphically  described  by  Mr.  Lane,  in  his  Modern  Egyptians. 
We  give  the  account  as  it  contrasts  strikingly  with  the  simple  processions 
of  Sunni  Mohammedans  in  India. 

The  first  persons  are  about  six  or  more  poor  men,  called 
"Yamaniyah,"  mostly  blind,  who  proceed  two  and  two,  or  three  and 
three,  together.  Walking  at  a  moderate  pace,  or  rather  slowly,  they 
chant  incessantly,  in  a  melancholy  tone,  the  profession  of  faith  (There 
is  no  Deity  but  God ;  Mohammed  is  God's  Apostle ;  God  favor  and  pre- 
serve him !).  They  are  followed  by  some  male  relations  and  friends  of 
the  deceased,  and,  in  many  cases,  by  two  or  more  persons  of  some 
sect  of  darweshes,  bearing  the  flags  of  their  order.  This  is  a  general 
custom  at  the  funeral  of  a  darwesh.  Next  follow  three  or  four  more 
schoolboys;  one  of  them  carries  a  mushal  (or  copy  of  the  Koran),  or 
a  volume  consisting  of  one  of  the  thirty  sections  of  the  Koran,  placed 
upon  a  kind  of  desk,  formed  of  palm-sticks,  and  covered  over,  generally 
with  an  embroidered  kerchief.  These  boys  chant,  in  a  higher  and  livelier 
voice  than  the  Yamaniyah,  usually  some  words  of  a  poem  called  the 
Hashriyah,  descriptive  of  the  events  of  the  last  day,  the  judgment,  etc. 
The  schoolboys  immediately  precede  the  bier,  which  is  borne  head- 
foremost. Three  or  four  friends  of  the  deceased  usually  carry  it  for  a 
short  distance,  then  three  or  four  other  friends  bear  it  a  little  further, 
and  then  these  are  in  like  manner  relieved.  Casual  passengers  also 
often  take  part  in  this  service,  which  is  esteemed  highly  meritorious. 
Behind  the  bier  walk  the  female  mourners,  sometimes  a  group  of  more 
than  a  dozen,  or  twenty,  with  their  hair  disheveled,  though  generally 
concealed  by  the  head-veil,  crying  and  shrieking,  as  before  described, 
and  often  the  hired  mourners  accompany  them,  celebrating  the  praises 
of  the  deceased.    Among  the  women  the  relatives  and  domestics  of 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


the  deceased  are  distinguished  by  a  strip  of  linen  or  cotton  stuff  or 
muslin,  generally  blue.,  bound  round  the  head  and  tied  in  a  single  knot 
behind,  the  ends  hanging  down  a  few  inches.  Each  of  these  also  carries 
a  handkerchief,  usually  dyed  blue,  which  she  sometimes  holds  over  her 
shoulders,  and  at  other  times  twirls  with  both  hands  over  her  head, 
or  before  her  face.  The  cries  of  the  women,  the  lively  chanting  of  the 
youths,  and  the  deep  tones  uttered  by  the  Yamaniyah,  compose  a 
strange  discord.  The  funeral  procession  of  a  man  of  wealth,  or  of  a 
person  of  the  middle  classes,  is  sometimes  preceded  by  three  or  four 
or  more  camels,  bearing  bread  and  water  to  give  to  the  poor  at  the  tomb, 
and  is  composed  of  a  more  numerous  and  varied  assemblage  of  persons. 
The  foremost  of  these  are  the  Yamaniyah,  who  chant  the  profession 
of  the  faith,  as  described  above.  They  are  generally  followed  by  some 
male  friends  of  the  deceased,  and  some  learned  and  devout  persons  who 
have  been  invited  to  attend  the  funeral.  Next  follows  a  group  of  four 
or  more  fagihs,  chanting  the  Suratu  'l-An'am  (the  sixth  chapter  of  the 
Koran),  and  sometimes  another  group,  chanting  the  Surat  Ya-sin  (the 
thirty-sixth  chapter,  another  chanting  the  Suratu  '1-Kahf  (the  eigh- 
teenth chapter),  and  another  chanting  the  Suratu  'd-Dukhan'  (the 
forty-fourth  chapter).  These  are  followed  by  some  munshids,  singing  the 
Burday,  and  these  by  certain  persons  called  Ashabu  '1-Ahzab,  who  are 
members  of  religious  orders  founded  by  celebrated  shaikhs.  There  are 
generally  four  or  more  of  the  order  of  the  Hizbu  's-Sadat,  a  similar 
group  of  the  Hizbu  'sh-Sha'rawi ;  each  group  chants  a  particular  form 
of  prayer.  After  them  are  generally  borne  two  or  more  half-furled 
flags,  the  banners  of  one  or  other  of  the  principle  orders  of  darweshes. 
Then  follow  the  schoolboys,  the  bier,  and  the  female  mourners,  as  in 
the  procession  before  described,  and,  perhaps,  the  led  horses  of  the 
bearers,  if  these  be  men  of  rank.  A  buffalo,  to  be  sacrificed  at  the  tomb, 
where  its  flesh  is  to  be  distributed  to  the  poor,  sometimes  closes  the 
procession.  The  funeral  of  a  devout  shaikh,  or  one  of  the  great  Ulama, 
is  still  more  numerously  attended,  and  the  bier  of  such  a  person  is  not 
covered  with  a  shawl.  A  wali  is  further  honored  in  his  funeral  by 
a  remarkable  custom.  Women  follow  his  bier,  but,  instead  of  wailing, 
as  they  would  after  the  corpse  of  an  ordinary  mortal,  they  rend  the 
air  with  the  shrill  and  quavering  cries  of  joy  called  Zagharit,  and  if  these 
cries  are  discontinued  but  for  a  minute,  the  bearers  of  the  bier  protest 
that  they  cannot  proceed,  that  a  supernatural  power  rivets  them  to  the 
spot  on  which  they  stand.  Very  often,  it  is  said,  a  wali  impels  the 
bearers  of  his  corpse  to  a  particular  spot.    The  following  anecdote, 


346 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


describing  an  ingenious  mode  of  puzzling  a  dead  saint  in  a  case  of  this 
kind,  was  related  to  me  by  one  of  my  friends.  Some  men  were  lately 
bearing  the  corpse  of  a  wali  to  a  tomb  prepared  for  it  in  the  great 
cemetery  of  the  north  of  the  metropolis,  but  on  arriving  at  the  gate, 
called  Babu  'n-Nase,  which  leads  to  the  cemetery,  they  found  them- 
selves unable  to  proceed  further,  from  the  cause  above  mentioned.  "It 
seems,"  said  one  of  the  bearers,  "that  the  shaikh  is  determined  not  to 
be  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  Babu  'n-Nase,  and  what  shall  we  do?" 
They  were  all  much  perplexed,  but  being  as  obstinate  as  the  saint  him- 
self, they  did  not  immediately  yield  to  his  caprice.  Retreating  a  few 
paces,  and  then  advancing  with  a  quick  step,  they  thought  by  such  an 
impetus  to  force  the  corpse  through  the  gateway,  but  their  efforts  were 
unsuccessful,  and  the  same  experiment  they  repeated  in  vain  several 
times.  They  then  placed  the  bier  on  the  ground  to  rest  and  consult, 
and  one  of  them,  beckoning  away  his  comrades  to  a  distance  beyond 
hearing  of  the  dead  saint,  said  to  them :  "Let  us  take  up  the  bier  again, 
and  turn  it  around  several  times  till  the  shaikh  becomes  giddy,  he  then 
will  not  know  in  what  direction  we  are  going,  and  we  may  take  him 
easily  through  the  gate."  This  they  did ;  the  saint  was  puzzled,  as  they 
expected,  and  quietly  buried  in  the  place  which  he  had  so  striven  to 
avoid.  | 
In  the  funerals  of  females  and  boys  the  bier  is  usually  only  pre- 
ceded by  the  Yamaniyah,  chanting  the  profession  of  faith,  and  by  some 
male  relatives  of  the  deceased,  and  followed  by  the  female  mourners, 
unless  the  deceased  were  of  a  family  of  wealth,  or  of  considerable  station 
in  the  world,  in  which  case  the  funeral  procession  is  distinguished  by 
some  additional  display. 

I  shall  give  a  short  description  of  one  of  the  most  genteel  and 
decorous  funerals  of  this  kind  that  I  have  witnessed.  It  was  that  of  a 
young  unmarried  lady.  Two  men,  each  bearing  a  large  furled,  green 
flag,  headed  the  procession,  preceding  the  Yamaniyah,  who  chanted  in 
an  unusually  low  and  solemn  manner.  These  fagirs  who  were  in 
number  about  eight,  were  followed  by  a  group  of  iakihs,  chanting  a 
chapter  of  the  Koran.  Next  after  the  latter  was  a  man  bearing  a  large 
branch  of  "Nabg"  (or  lotetree),  an  emblem  of  the  deceased.  On  each 
side  of  him  walked  a  person  bearing  a  tall  staff  or  cane,  to  the  top  of 
which  were  attached  several  hoops  ornamented  with  strips  of  various 
colored  paper.  These  were  followed  by  two  Turkish  soldiers,  side  by 
side,  one  bearing  on  a  small  tray  a  gilt  silver  "gumgum"  of  rose  water, 
and  the  other  bearing,  on  a  similar  tray,  a  "mibharah"  of  gilt  silver,  in 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA 


347 


which  some  odoriferous  substance  (as  benzoin,  or  frankincense)  was 
burning.  These  vessels  diffused  the  odor  of  their  contents  on  the  way, 
and  were  afterwards  used  to  perfume  the  sepulchral  vault.  Passengers 
were  occasionally  sprinkled  with  the  rose  water.  Next  followed  four 
men,  each  of  whom  bore,  upon  a  small  tray,  several  small  lighted  tapers 
of  wax,  stuck  in  lumps  of  paste  of  "hinna."  The  bier  was  covered 
with  rich  shawls,  and  its  shahid  was  decorated  with  handsome  ornaments 
of  the  head,  having,  besides  the  safa,  a  gussah  almas  (a  long  ornament 
of  gold  and  diamonds  worn  over  the  forehead),  and  upon  its  flat  top, 
a  rich  diamond  gurs.  These  were  the  jewels  of  the  deceased,  or  were, 
perhaps,  as  is  often  the  case,  borrowed  for  the  occasion.  The  female 
mourners,  in  number  about  seven  or  eight,  clad  in  the  usual  manner  of 
the  ladies  of  Egypt  (with  the  black  silk  covering,  etc),  followed  the  bier, 
not  on  foot,  as  is  the  common  custom  in  funerals  in  this  country,  but 
mounted  on  high-saddled  asses,  and  only  the  last  two  or  three  of  them 
were  wailing,  these  being,  probably,  hired  mourners.  In  another 
funeral  procession  of  a  female,  the  daughter  of  a  Turk  of  high  rank, 
the  Yamaniyah  were  followed  by  six  slaves,  walking  two  by  two.  The 
first  two  slaves  bore  each  a  silver  gum-gum  of  rose  water,  which  they 
sprinkled  on  the  passengers,  and  one  of  them  honored  me  so  profusely 
as  to  wet  my  dress  very  uncomfortably,  after  which,  he  poured  a  small 
quantity  into  my  hands,  and  I  wetted  my  face  with  it,  according  to 
custom.  Each  of  the  next  two  bore  a  silver  mibharah,  with  perfume, 
and  the  other  two  carried  a  silver  azgi  (or  hanging  censer),  with  burning 
charcoal  of  frankincense.  The  jewels  on  the  shahid  of  the  bier  were  of  a 
costly  description.  Eleven  ladies,  moamted  on  high-saddled  asses, 
together  with  several  naddabahs,  followed." 

HEAVEN  (Arabic  Sama). 

Persian  Asman,  which  expresses  the  firmament  as  distinguished 
from  Firdaus,  or  Paradise,  the  abodes  of  bliss.  In  the  Koran  it  is  stated 
that  there  are  seven  paths,  or  stages  in  heaven.  Sura  xxiii:i7:  "And 
we  have  created  above  you  seven  paths  nor  are  we  heedless  of  the  cre- 
ation." By  which  the  commentators  understand  that  there  are  paths  of 
the  angels  and  of  the  celestial  bodies.  The  creation  of  the  heaven  is  de- 
clared to  be  for  God's  glory  and  not  for  his  pastime.  Sura  xxi  :i6 :  "We 
created  not  the  heaven  and  the  earth,  and  that  which  is  between  them, 
by  way  of  sport."  It  is  the  general  belief  that  at  the  last  day  the  heavens 
will  fall,  but  that  they  are  now  upheld  by  God's  power.  Sura  xxii  -.64 : 
"He  holds  up  the  heaven  from  falling  on  the  earth  save  at  His  bidding." 


348 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


According  to  the  Traditions,  Mohammed  during  the  mu'raj,  or  night 
journey,  passed  through  these  seven  heavens,  and  they  are  stated  to  be 
as  follows:  (i)  That  which  is  of  pure  virgin  silver  and  which  is  Adam's 
residence ;  (2)  of  pure  gold,  which  is  John  the  Baptist's  and  Jesus' ;  (3) 
of  pearls,  which  is  Joseph's ;  (4)  of  white  gold,  which  is  Enoch's ;  (5)  of 
silver,  which  is  Aaron's ;  (6)  of  ruby  and  garnet,  which  is  Moses' ;  (7) 
which  is  Abraham's.  These  accounts  are,  however,  most  confused ;  for 
in  some  books  and  according  to  popular  tradition,  the  fourth  and  not 
the  second  heaven  is  assigned  to  Jesus.  This  view  is  in  harmony  with 
the  seven  spheres  of  Ptolemy,  the  first  of  which  is  that  of  the  moon,  the 
second  Mercury,  the  third  Venus,  the  fourth  the  Sun,  the  fifth  Mars, 
the  sixth  Jupiter,  the  seventh  Saturn ;  each  of  which  orbs  was  sup- 
posed by  the  ancients  to  revolve  round  the  earth  in  its  proper  sphere. 
Mohammed  said  the  distance  between  each  heavenly  region  is  five  hun- 
dred years'  journey. 

THE  EARTH  (Arabic  arz). 

Mohammed  taught  his  followers  that  just  as  there  are  seven  heavens 
above  another,  so  there  are  seven  earths  one  beneath  another,  the  dis- 
tance between  each  of  these  regions  being  five  hundred  years'  journey. 

In  the  Koran  the  earth  is  said  to  be  stretched  out  like  a  carpet  or 
bed,  which  expression  the  ancient  commentators  understood  to  imply 
that  the  earth  was  a  vast  plane,  but  circular ;  and  to  be  but  a  handful  in 
the  sight  of  God,  which  in  the  last  day  shall  be  changed  into  another 
earth. 

The  earth  is  believed  by  Mohammedan  writers  to  be  surrounded  by 
a  great  sea  called  ail-Bahru  '1-Muhit,  or  the  circumambient  ocean,  which 
is  bounded  by  the  mountains  of  Qaf.  The  extent  of  the  earth  is  said  to 
be  equal  to  a  journey  of  five  hundred  years ;  two  hundred  years'  journey 
being  allotted  to  the  sea,  two  hundred  to  the  uninhabited  desert,  eighty 
to  the  country  of  Gog  and  Magog  and  the  rest  to  the  civilized  world. 
Certain  terrae  incognitae  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains  of  Qaf  are  said 
to  be  inhabited  by  the  jinn,  or  genii.  According  to  some,  Mecca  (or 
Jerusalem  according  to  others)  is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  earth.  On 
the  Muhit  is  the  'Arshu  '1-Iblis,  or  "Throne  of  Satan."  The  Western 
portion  of  the  Muhit  is  often  called  the  Bahru  'z-Zulmat,  or  "Sea  of 
Darkness,"  and  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the  earth  is  the  Fountain  of 
Life  of  which  al-Khizr  drank,  and  in  virtue  of  which  he  still  lives,  and 
will  live  till  the  Day  of  Judgment.  The  mountains  of  Qaf  which  bound 
the  great  sea  Muhit,  form  a  circular  barrier  round  the  whole  earth,  and 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA 


349 


are  said  to  be  of  green  chrysolite,  the  color  of  which  the  Prophet  said 
imparts  a  greenish  tint  to  the  sky.  The  general  opinion  is  that  the 
mountains  of  Qaf  bound  our  earth,  but  some  say  there  are  countries 
beyond,  each  country  being  a  thousand  years'  journey. 

The  seven  earths,  which  are  five  hundred  years'  journey  from 
each  other,  are  situated  one  beneath  the  other,  and  each  of  these  seven 
regions  has  its  special  occupants.  The  occupants  of  the  first  are  men, 
genii,  and  animals ;  the  second  is  occupied  by  the  suffocating  wind  which 
destroyed  the  infidel  tribe  of  'Ad;  the  third  is  filled  with  the  stones  of 
hell,  mentioned  in  the  Koran  as  "the  fuel  of  which  is  men  and  stones ;" 
the  fourth  by  the  sulphur  of  hell ;  the  fifth  by  the  serpents  of  hell ;  the 
sixth  by  the  scorpions  of  hell,  which  are  in  size  and  color  like  black 
mules,  and  have  tails  like  spears ;  and  the  seventh  by  the  devil  and 
his  angels.  Our  earth  is  said  to  be  supported  on  the  shoulders  of  an 
angel,  who  stands  upon  a  rock  of  ruby,  which  rock  is  supported  on  a 
huge  bull  with  four  thousand  eyes,  and  the  same  number  of  ears,  noses, 
mouths,  tongues,  and  feet ;  between  every  one  of  each  is  a  distance  of 
five  hundred  years'  journey.  The  name  of  this  bull  of  Kujuta,  who  is 
supported  by  an  enormous  fish,  the  name  of  which  is  Bahamut. 

The  above  is  but  a  brief  outline  of  the  Mohammedan  belief  as  re- 
gards the  earth's  formation,  but  the  statements  of  Mohammedan  com- 
mentators are  so  wild  on  the  subject,  that  it  seems  quite  useless  to  quote 
them  as  authorities,  for  they  contradict  each  other  in  endless  variety. 

GABRIEL  (Arabic  Ji'bra'-il). 

In  the  Koran,  Jibril.  The  angelic  being  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  medium  of  the  revelation  of  the  Koran  to  Mohammed.  He  is 
mentioned  only  twice  in  the  Koran  by  name  Sarutu  '1-Baqarah  ii  191 : 
"Whoso  is  the  enemy  of  Gabriel — for  he  has  by  God's  leave  caused  to 
descend  on  thy  heart  the  confirmation  of  previous  revelations,"  etc. 
And  again  in  Sarutu  't-Tahrim,  lxvi.  4:  "God  is  his  protector  and 
Gabriel."  He  is,  however,  supposed  to  be  spoken  of  in  Sura  ii:8i, 
254;  v.  109;  xvi.  104,  as  "the  Holy  Spirit,"  Ruhu  l'Qudus;  in  Sura 
xxvi.  193,  as  "the  Faithful  Spirit,"  ar-Ruhu  '1-Amin ;  and  liii.  5,  as  "one 
terrible  in  power,"  Shadilu  '1-Quwa. 

The  account  of  Gabriel's  first  appearance  to  Mohammed  is  re- 
lated as  follows  by  Abu  '1-Fida :  "Mohammed  was  wont  to  retire  to 
Mount  Hira  for  a  month  every  year.  When  the  year  of  his  mission 
came,  he  went  to  Mount  Hifa  in  the  month  of  Ramazan  for  the  purpose 
of  sojourning  there,  having  his  family  with  him;  and  there  he  abode 


350 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


until  the  night  arrived  in  which  God  was  pleased  to  bless  him.  Gabriel 
came  to  him,  and  said  to  him,  'Recite!'  And  he  replied,  'What  shall  I 
recite?'  And  he  said,  'Recite  thou,  in  the  name  of  thy  Lord  who  cre- 
ated. Created  man  from  clots  of  blood.  Recite  thou!  For  the  Lord 
is  most  Beneficent.  Who  hath  taught  the  use  of  the  pen.  Hath  taught 
man  that  which  he  knoweth  not.'  After  this  the  Prophet  went  to  the 
middle  of  the  mountain-,  and  heard  a  voice  from  heaven  which  said, 
'Thou  art  the  messenger  of  God  and  I  am  Gabriel.'  He  continued  in 
his  place  to  contemplate  Gabriel  until  he  withdrew." 

It  is  clear  that  at  a  later  period  at  last,  if  not  from  the  first,  Moham- 
med confounded  Gabriel  with  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  idea  may  have 
arisen  from  some  such  misapprehension  as  the  following.  Mary  con- 
ceived Jesus  by  the  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  overshadowed 
her.  But  it  was  Gabriel  who  visited  Mary  to  announce  the  conception 
of  the  Savior.  The  Holy  Ghost  was,  therefore,  another  name  for  Ga- 
briel. We  need  hardly  wonder  at  this  ignorance  when  Mohammed 
seems  to  have  believed  that  Christians  held  Mary  to  be  the  third  person 
in  the  Trinity! 

With  reference  to  the  verse  quoted  above,  from  the  Sura  '1-Baga- 
rah,  Sale  says  the  Commentators  say  that  the  Jews  asked  what  angel 
it  was  that  brought  the  Koran  to  Mohammed,  and  on  being  told  that 
it  was  Gabriel,  they  replied  that  he  was  their  enemy  and  the  messen- 
ger of  wrath  and  judgment ;  but  that  if  it  had  been  Michael  they  would 
have  believed  on  him,  because  that  angel  was  their  friend,  and  the  mes- 
senger of  peace  and  plenty. 

It  is  also  important  to  observe  that  the  only  distinct  assertion  of 
Gabriel  being  the  medium  of  divine  revelation,  occurs  in  a  Madaniyah 
Sura. 

Gabriel  is  called  in  Moslem  books  ar-Ruhu  '1-A'zam,  "The  Supreme 
Spirit;"  ar-Ruhu  '1-Mu-karram,  "The  Honored  Spirit;"  Ruhu  '1-Ilga, 
"The  Spirit  of  casting  into ;"  Ruhu  '1-Qudus,  "The  Holy  Spirit ;"  and  ar- 
Ruhu  '1-Amin,  "The  Faithful  Spirit." 

MOHAMMED'S  JOURNEY  TO  PARADISE. 

The  following  brief  description  of  Mohammed's  traditional  journey 
to  Paradise  may  fittingly  illustrate  some  of  the  singular  ideas  of  Islam. 

The  angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  Mohammed  with  an  Alborak,  a 
strange  animal,  a  cross  between  an  ass  and  a  mule.  This  long-eared 
brute  began  to  talk,  demanding  some  concession  from  the  new  Prophet. 
Having  promised  the  creature  a  golden  stall  in  heaven,  Mohammed 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


351 


was  permitted  to  mount.  In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  he  arrived  at  Jeru- 
salem, where,  after  a  pleasant  interview  with  the  patriarchs,  and  pro- 
phets of  all  ages,  he  ascended  with  Gabriel  upon  a  ladder  extending 
from  the  "City  of  David"  to  the  "City  of  God."  As  he  arrived  at  the 
portals  of  heaven  he  saw  this  large  inscription  on  one  side,  "There  is 
no  God  but  God,"  and  on  the  other,  "Mohammed  is  his  Apostle."  The 
heavenly  host  being  informed  that  Mohammed  had  come,  at  once  the 
pearly  gates  were  thrown  wide  open,  and  upon  entering  he  was  quickly 
embraced  by  Father  Adam,  who  was  happy  to  meet  his  most  illustrious 
son.  From  this  heaven,  the  stars  which  he  described  as  being  hollow 
silver  balls,  were  suspended  by  golden  chains.  What  would  become  of 
faith  in  Mohammed's  visions  if  modern  science  were  introduced  among 
his  followers. 

Quickly  Mohammed  was  taken  from  the  first  to  the  second 
heaven, — a  journey  of  five  hundred  years, — where  he  met  the  angel  of 
the  Cocks,  who  was  so  tall  as  to  reach  from  the  first  to  the  second 
heaven.  Nearly  every  morning  this  big  rooster  joins  God  in  singing 
a  song  that  fills  the  entire  universe  with  its  melodious  strains.  Every 
being  on  earth  hears  them  but  man.  In  this  heaven  he  met  Noah,  who 
was  the  presiding  dignitary,  and  he  was  tendered  a  most  cordial  re- 
ception as  he  passed  through  the  golden  streets.  In  the  third  heaven, 
he  describes  the  angels  as  being  very  large.  One  of  the  most  gigantic 
required  seventy  thousand  days'  journey  between  the  eyes.  Here,  too, 
he  found  the  same  inscription  as  in  the  first  and  second  heaven.  After 
a  short  interview  with  Moses  in  the  fourth,  or  emerald,  heaven,  he  was 
taken  to  the  fifth  to  meet  Joseph;  then  the  sixth  heaven,  of  carbuncle, 
where  he  beheld  John  the  Baptist. 

Radiant  with  light  and  ruled  over  by  Jesus  was  the  seventh  heaven 
in  which  he  was  attended  by  a  vast  multitude  of  joyous  inhabitants  and 
innumerable  angels  of  dazzling  beauty,  each  of  whom  possessed  seventy 
thousand  heads,  with  seventy  thousand  mouths  to  each  head,  and 
seventy  thousand  tongues  to  each  mouth — all  singing  and  singing  day 
and  night  unceasingly.  Here  the  Prophet,  with  glorious  pomp,  was  pre- 
sented to  God,  whose  face  was  concealed  by  seventy  thousand  veils. 
Here  too,  on  the  side  of  the  divine  throne,  Mohammed  beheld  the  in- 
scription: "There  is  no  God  but  God,"  and  on  the  other,  "Moham- 
med is  His  Apostle."  God,  after  saluting  Mohammed,  commissioned 
him  to  return  to  earth  with  full  authority.  All  this  the  faithful  most 
firmly  believe. 

Chastity  is  prescribed  by  the  Koran  for  the  faithful  in  two  forms — 


352 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


voluntary  and  compulsory.  The  latter  amounts  to  the  fortieth  part  of 
his  possessions,  but  it  is  only  imposed  when  the  property  aggregates 
a  certain  sum.  Voluntary  charity  dispensed  at  the  time  of  the  feast  fol- 
lowing the  annual  fast. 

The  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  as  a  pious  duty,  is  believed  to  secure  cer- 
tain inestimable  privileges  for  all  who  can  possibly  make  the  trip.  Noth- 
ing could  test  faith  more  than  this  long,  tiresome  journey.  All  the 
world  has  heard  of  the  vast  concourse  there  annually  assembled  from 
all  parts  of  Asia,  Africa  and  Europe.  At  that  time  every  highway  lead- 
ing to  the  sacred  Kaaba  is  a  field  hospital  for  the  sick  and  dying;  and  in 
the  general  lack  of  physicians  and  nurses  when  cholera  prevails,  as  it 
usually  does,  Mecca  becomes  the  disseminating  point  for  the  plague. 

Honors  are  bestowed  on  the  survivors  of  the  hazardous  ordeal  of 
this  journey,  and  they  are  addressed  by  the  title  of  hadji. 

Mohammed  has  declared  that  he  will  not  intercede  in  heaven  for 
unmarried  men.  So  marry  you  must  or  take  your  chances.  Remember 
Mohammed,  old  bachelors  and  old  maids,  or  you  will  be  miserable  in 
this  world  and  in  the  world  to  come.  The  Prophet  would  have  them 
bring  up  large  families,  that  his  followers  may  outnumber  all  others 
in  Paradise.  The  widows  actually  pray,  "Let  me  be  married  before 
I  die,  that  I  may  not  be  ashamed  when  I  meet  Allah !"  Allah  will  re- 
ward the  parents  of  children,  those  who  pay  the  debts  of  another,  and 
the  soldiers  in  holy  wars. 

As  we  pursue  the  career  of  such  a  heathen  religion,  so  infernally 
atrocious  in  theory  and  practice,  our  pained  hearts  cannot  help  but 
exclaim,  "How  long,  O  Lord,  how  long!  May  we  not  confidently 
cherish  the  hope  that  the  shining  cross  of  the  humble  Nazarene,  that 
has  conqueringly  risen  above  the  powers  of  darkness  and  tyranny,  shall 
soorier  or  later,  as  its  final  achievement,  triumph  over  the  blood  red 
crescent  of  Mohammed?" 

ETERNITY  OF  PUNISHMENT. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  teaches  that  all  Moslems  will  be  ul- 
timately saved,  although  they  will  suffer  for  their  actual  sins  in  a  purga- 
torial hell.  But  those  who  have  not  embraced  Islam  will  suffer  a  never- 
ending  torment  in  "the  fire."  Sura  ii.  37 :  "Those  who  misbelieve 
and  call  our  signs  lies,  they  are  the  fellotyvs  of  hell,  they  shall  dwell 
therein  for  ever." 

Sura  xi.  108,  109:    "And  as  for  those  who  are  wretched — why  in 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


353 


the  fire  shall  they  groan  and  sob !  to  dwell  therein  forever  as  long  as 
the  heavens  and  earth  endure." 

Al-Baizawi  says  the  expression  "as  long  as  the  heavens  and  the 
earth  endure,"  is  an  Arabic  idiom  expressing  that  which  is  eternal. 

Ibu  'Arabi  (died  A.  D.  638),  in  his  book  Tususu  '1-Hikam,  says 
the  word  khalid  in  the  verses  quoted  above  does  not  imply  eternal 
duration,  but  a  period,  or  age,  of  long  duration.  Al-Baizawi,  the  com- 
mentator, also  admits  that  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  only  ex- 
presses a  period  of  extended  duration ;  but  the  Jalalau  and  Husain  both 
contend  that  its  meaning  is  that  of  abadi,  or  "never  ending,"  in  which 
no  being  will  be  annihilated,  and  which  no  one  can  ever  escape. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  this  word  khalid  is  that  used  for  the 
eternity  of  bliss  of  those  in  Paradise : — 

Sura  xi.  no:  "As  for  those  who  are  glad — why  in  Paradise!  to 
dwell  therein  forever." 

HELL. 

The  place  of  torment  is  most  frequently  spoken  of  in  the  Koran 
and  Traditions  as  an-Nar,  "the  fire,"  but  the  word  Johannam  occurs 
about  thirty  times.  It  is  said  to  have  seven  portals  or  divisions.  Sura 
xv.  44:  "Verily,  hell  is  promised  to  all  together  (who  follow  Satan). 
It  has  seven  portals,  and  at  every  door  there  is  a  separate  party  of 
them." 

The  Persian  word  used  for  hell  in  books  of  theology,  is  dozakh. 

The  Mohammedan  commentators,  with  that  utter  recklessness 
which  so  characterizes  their  writings,  distribute  these  seven  stations 
as  follows :  (1)  Johannam,  the  purgatorial  hell  for  Moslems.  (2)  Laza, 
a  blazing  fire  for  Christians.  (3)  Al-Hutamah,  an  intense  fire  for  the 
Jews.  (4)  Sa'ir,  a  flaming  fire  for  the  Sabians.  (5)  Sagar,  a  scorching 
fire  for  the  Magi.  (6)  Al-Jahim,  a  huge  hot  fire  for  idolators.  (7)  Ha- 
wiyah,  a  bottomless  pit  for  hypocrites. 

OATH  (Arabic  yamin). 

The  teaching  of  the  Koran  with  reference  to  an  oath,  is  expressed 
in  the  following  verses  : — 

Sura  ii.  225 :  "God  will  not  punish  you  for  an  inconsiderate 
word  in  your  oath,  but  he  will  punish  you  for  that  which  your  hearts 
have  assented  to." 

Sura  v.  91 :  "God  will  not  punish  you  for  an  inconsiderate  word 
in  your  oaths,  but  He  will  punish  you  in  regard  to  an  oath  taken  seri- 


354 


PERSIA  BY  A.PERSIAN. 


ously.  Its  expiation  shall  be  to  feed  ten  poor  persons  with  such  mod- 
erate food  as  ye  feed  your  own  family  with,  or  to  clothe  them ;  or  to  set 
free  a  captive.   But  he  who  cannot  find  means  shall  fast  three  days." 

Sura  xvi.  96 :   "Take  not  your  oaths  between  you  deceitfully." 

The  following1  is  the  teaching  of  Mohammed,  as  given  in  the  Tra- 
ditions : — 

"Whoever  swears  to  a  thing  and  says,  'If  it  please  God,"  and  acts 
contrary  to  his  oath,  it  is  no  sin." 

"Swear  not  by  the  idols  or  by  your  own  fathers." 

"Swear  not  by  God  except  it  be  to  the  truth." 

"Whoever  swears  by  the  prayers,  or  by  the  fast,  or  by  the  pil- 
grimage, is  not  a  Moslem." 

The  Prophet  used  generally  to  swear  in  these  words :  "No  by  the 
Turner  of  Hearts." 

According  to  the  Hidayah,  yamin  is  constituted  by  the  use  of  the 
name  of  Almighty  God,  or  by  any  of  those  appellations  by  which  the 
Deity  is  generally  known  or  understood. 

False  oaths  are  of  three  kinds : — 

(1)  Al-Yaminu  '1-Ghamus.  An  oath  taken  concerning  a  thing 
already  past,  in  which  is  conveyed  an  intentional  falsehood  on  the 
part  of  the  swearer:  such  an  oath  is  highly  sinful,  the  Prophet  having 
declared — "Whosoever  sweareth  falsely,  the  same  shall  be  condemned 
to  hell." 

(2)  Al-Yaminu  '1-mun'agid.  An  oath  taken  concerning  a  matter 
which  is  to  come.  Thus,  a  man  swears  that  he  will  do  such  a  thing, 
or  he  will  not  do  such  a  thing  and  where  he  fails  in  this,  expiation  is 
incumbent  upon  him,  which  expiation  is  established  on  the  authority 
of  the  sacred  writings. 

(3)  Yaminu  '1-Laghw.  An  oath  taken  concerning  an  incident  or 
transaction  already  past,  where  the  swearer  believes  that  the  matter 
to  which  he  thus  bears  testimony  accords  with  what  he  swears,  though 
it  should  happen  to  be  actually  otherwise;  in  which  case  it  may  be 
hoped  from  the  divine  mercy  that  the  swearer  will  not  be  condemned 
for  such  an  oath. 

The  expiation,  or  kaffarah,  is  of  no  avail  for  the  Yaminu  '1-Ghamus, 
but  it  is  necessary  for  the  Yaminu  '1-mun  'agid.  It  consists  of  either 
feeding  or  clothing  ten  poor  persons,  or  releasing  a  Moslem  captive. 

(4)  By  saying,  "I  impose  upon  myself  divorcement." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


355 


OATH. 

The  following  are  considered  the  most  solemn  and  binding  methods 
of  taking  an  oath: — 

(1)  Saying  three  times  "by  the  Great  God." 

(2)  Taking  the  Koran  and  saying,  "by  what  this  contains  of  the 
word  of  God." 

(3)  By  placing  a  sword  on  the  Koran. 

(4)  By  saying,  "I  impose  upon  myself  divorcement." 
Mohammed  himself  was  rather  given  to  swearing,  and  the  Koran 

is  full  of  wild  oaths,  one  of  the  most  terrible  of  which,  according  to 
the  Prophet's  own  words,  is  to  "swear  by  the  setting  stars." 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  examples  set  them  by  their  Prophet, 
Mohammedans  are  commonly  guilty  of  taking  God's  name  in  vain,  by 
swearing  upon  every  petty  occasion. 

THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF  AN  OATH. 

An  oath  in  a  court  of  justice  is  not  worthy  of  credit,  unless  it  be 
taken  in  the  name  of  God,  because  Mohammed  said*  "Whosoever  takes 
an  oath  otherwise  than  in  the  name  of  God,  is  most  certainly  a  poly- 
theist."  It  is  incumbent  upon  the  Qazi,  or  judge,  to  request  the 
swearer  to  corroborate  his  oath  by  reciting  some  of  the  attributes  of 
God.  For  example,  "I  swear  by  God,  the  Righteous,  the  Knower  of 
Secrets,  etc.  A  defendant  must  not  be  required  to  swear  by  divorce 
or  emancipation,  as  if  he  should  say :  "If  it  be  true  my  wife  is  divorced, 
or  my  slave  is  free." 

If  an  oath  be  administered  to  a  Jew,  he  should  say,  "I  swear  to 
God  who  revealeth  the  Tawrat  to  Moses." 

If  to  a  Christian  he  should  say,  "I  swear  by  God,  who  revealeth 
the  Injil  to  Jesus." 

If  it  be  to  a  Majusi,  or  fire-worshiper,  he  should  say,  "I  swear  by 
God  who  created  fire." 

An  oath  cannot  be  administered  to  an  idolator  otherwise  than  in  the 
name  of  God,  in  accordance  with  this  verse  in  the  Koran :  "If  ye  ask 
of  them  who  hath  created  you,  verily,  they  will  say  God  Almighty." 

An  oath  cannot  be  administered  to  infidels  in  their  places  of  wor- 
ship, because  the  Qazi  is  not  allowed  to  enter  such  a  place.  This  ap- 
plies to  the  places  of  worship  of  Jews  and  Christians  as  well  as  of  idol- 
ators. 

Women  are  not,  in  Moslem  law  (as  in  Jewish,  Mishna  Sheb.  iv.  1), 
forbidden  to  bear  witness  on  oath. 


356 


PERSIA  BYcA  PERSIAN. 


BEAUTY  (Female). 


The  maiden,  whose  loveliness  inspires  the  most  impassioned  ex- 
pression in  Arabic  poetry  and  prose,  is  celebrated  for  her  slender  figure ; 
she  is  like  the  cane  among  plants,  and  is  elegant  as  the  twig  of  the 
Oriental  willow.  Her  face  is  like  the  full  moon,  presenting  the  strong- 
est contrast  to  the  color  of  her  hair,  which  (to  preserve  the  nature  of 
the  simile  just  employed)  is  of  the  deepest  hue  of  night,  and  descends 
to  the  middle  of  her  back.  A  rosy  blush  overspreads  the  center  of  each 
cheek;  and  a  mole  is  considered  an  additional  charm.  The  Arabs, 
indeed,  are  particularly  extravagant  in  their  admiration  of  this  natural 


beauty  spot,  which,  according  to  its  place,  is  compared  to  a  globule  of 
ambergris  upon  a  dish  of  alabaster,  or  upon  the  surface  of  a  ruby.  The 
eyes  of  the  Arab  beauty  are  intensely  black,  large  and  long,  of  the  form, 
of  an  almond ;  they  are  full  of  brilliancy ;  but  this  is  softened  by  a  lid 
slightly  depressed,  and  by  long  silken  lashes,  giving  a  tender  and 
languid  expression,  which  is  full  of  enchantment,  and  scarcely  to  be 
improved  by  the  adventitious  aid  of  the  black  border  of  the  kuhl ;  for  this 
the  lovely  maiden  adds  rather  for  the  sake  of  fashion  than  necessity, 
having  what  the  Arabs  term  natural  kuhl.  The  eyebrows  are  thin  and 
arched,  the  forehead  is  wide,  and  fair  as  ivory;  the  nose  straight,  the 


A  MOHAMMEDAN  LADY  SMOKING  A  WATER  PIPE. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


357 


mouth  small ;  the  lips  are  of  brilliant  red,  and  the  teeth  "like  pearls  set 
in  coral."  The  forms  of  the  bosom  are  compared  to  two  pomegranates ; 
the  waist  is  slender ;  the  hips  are  wide  and  large ;  the  feet  and  hands 
small;  the  fingers  tapering,  and  their  extremities  dyed  with  the  deep 
orange-red  tint  imparted  by  the  leaves  of  binna. 

The  following  is  the  most  complete  analysis  of  Arabian  beauty, 
given  by  an  unknown  author,  quoted  by  Al-Ashagi : — 

Four  things  in  a  woman  should  be  black :  the  hair  of  the  head, 
the  eye-brows,  the  eye-lashes  and  the  dark  part  of  the  eyes ;  four  white : 
the  complexion  of  the  skin,  the  white  of  the  eyes,  the  teeth  and  the  legs ; 
four  red :  the  tongue,  the  lips,  the  middle  of  the  cheeks  and  the  gums ; 
four  round :  the  head,  the  neck,  the  forearms,  and  the  ankles ;  four  long : 
the  back,  the  fingers,  the  arms,  and  the  legs ;  four  wide :  the  forehead, 
the  eyes,  the  bosom,  and  the  hips ;  four  fine :  the  eye-brows,  the  nose,  the 
lips,  and  the  fingers ;  four  thick :  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  the  thigh, 
the  calves  of  the  legs,  and  the  knees;  four  small:  the  ears,  the  breasts, 
the  hands  and  the  feet.'"' 

PUBERTY  (Arabic  bulugh). 

The  puberty  of  a  boy  is  established  as  soon  as  the  usual  signs  of 
manhood  are  known  to  exist ;  but  if  none  of  these  signs  exist,  his 
puberty  is  not  clearly  established  until  he  have  completed  his  eighteenth 
year.  The  puberty  of  a  girl  is  established  in  the  same  way;  but  if  the 
usual  signs  of  womanhood  are  known  not  to  exist,  her  puberty  is  not 
established  until  her  seventeenth  year  has  been  completed.  This  is 
according  to  the  teaching  of  the  Imam  Abu  Hanifah.  But  his  two 
disciples  maintain  that  upon  either  a  boy  or  girl  completing  the  fifteenth 
year,  they  are  to  be  declared  adult.  The  Imam  ash-Shafi'i  concurs  in 
this  opinion,  and  it  is  said  there  is  also  a  report  of  Abu-Hanifah  to  the 
same  effect.  The  earliest  period  of  puberty  with  respect  to  a  boy  is 
twelve  years,  and  with  respect  to  a  girl  nine  years. 

When  a  boy  or  a  girl  approaches  the  age  of  puberty  and  they  declare 
themselves  adult,  their  declaration  must  be  credited,  and  •  they  then 
become  subject  to  all  the  laws  affecting  adults,  and  must  observe  all 
the  ordinances  of  the  Moslem  faith. 

Syed  Ameer  Ali  says : — 

"The  validity  of  marriages  contracted  for  minors  by  any  guardian 
other  than  the  father  or  the  grandfather,  is  not  established  until  ratified 
by  the  parties  on  arriving  at  puberty.  Such  ratification  in  the  case  of 
males  must  be  express,  and  in  the  case  of  females  may  be  either  express 


358 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


or  implied.  On  arriving  at  puberty,  both  the  parties  have  the  right  of 
either  ratifying  the  contract  entered  into  during  their  minority  or  of 
cancelling  it.  According  to  Sunnis,  in  order  to  effect  a  dissolution  of  the 
matrimonial  tie,  in  exercise  of  the  right  of  option  reserved  to  the  parties, 
it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  a  decree  of  the  judge ;  the  marriage 
remains  intact.  If  before  a  decree  has  been  obtained  one  of  the  parties 
should  die,  the  survivor  would  be  entitled  to  inherit  from  the  deceased. 

"The  Shiahs  differ  materially  from  the  Sunnis  on  this.  They  hold 
that  a  marriage  contracted  on  behalf  of  minors  by  any  unauthorized 
person  (fazuli),  i.  e.,  any  person  other  than  a  father  or  a  grandfather, 
remains  in  absolute  suspension  or  abeyance  until  assented  to  by  the 
parties  on  arriving  at  puberty;  that,  in  fact,  no  legal  effect  arises  from 
it  until  such  ratification,  and  if  in  the  interval  previous  to  ratification, 
one  of  the  parties  should  die,  the  contract  would  fall  to  the  ground  and 
there  would  be  no  right  of  inheritance  in  the  survivor." 

MARRIAGE. 

The  celebration  of  the  marriage  contract  is  called  nikah.  The  fes- 
tive rejoicings;  Persian  shadi.  Marriage  is  enjoined  upon  every  Mos- 
lem, and  celibacy  is  frequently  condemned  by  Mohammed.  It  is  related 
in  the  Traditions  that  Mohammed  said :  "When  the  servant  of  God' 
marries,  he  perfects  half  of  his  religion ;"  and  that  "on  one  occasion  Mo- 
hammed asked  a  man  if  he  was  married,  and  being  answered  in  the 
negative,  he  said,  'Art  thou  sound  and  healthy?'  Upon  the  man  reply- 
ing that  he  was,  Mohammed  said,  'Then  thou  art  one  of  the  brothers 
of  the  devil.'  "  Consequently  in  Islam,  even  the  ascetic  orders  are 
rather  married  than  single. 

It  is  related  that  one  of  the  Companions,  named  'Usman  ibu 
Maz'un,  wished  to  lead  a  life  of  celibacy,  but  Mohammed  forbade  him. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  sayings  of  Mohammed  on  the  sub- 
ject of  marriage : 

"The  best  wedding  is  that  upon  which  the  least  trouble  and  expense 
is  bestowed." 

"The  worst  of  the  feasts  are  marriage  feasts  to  which  the  rich  are 
invited  and  the  poor  left  out,  and  he  who  abandons  the  acceptation  of 
an  invitation,  then,  verily  disobeys  God  and  His  Prophet." 

"Matrimonial  alliances  (between  two  families  or  tribes)  increase 
friendship  more  than  anything  else." 

"Marry  women  who  love  their  husbands  and  be  very  prolific,  for  I 
wish  you  to  be  more  numerous  than  any  other  people." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


359 


"When  anyone  demands  your  daughter  in  marriage,  and  you  are 
pleased  with  his  disposition  and  his  faith,  then  give  her  to  him;  for  if 
you  do  not  so  then  there  will  be  strife  and  contention  in  the  world." 

"A  woman  may  be  married  either  for  her  money,  her  reputation, 
her  beauty,  or  her  religion;  then  look  out  for  a  religious  woman,  for 
if  you  do  marry  other  than  a  religious  woman,  may  your  hands  be 
rubbed  with  dirt." 

"All  young  men  who  have  arrived  at  the  age  of  puberty  should 
marry,  for  marriage  prevents  sins.    He  who  cannot  marry  should  fast." 

"When  a  Moslem  marries  he  perfects  half  his  religion,  and  he 
should  practice  abstinence  for  the  remaining  half." 

"Beware !  make  not  long  settlements  upon  women ;  because  if 
great  settlements  were  a  cause  of  greatness  in  the  world  and  a  right- 
eousness before  God,  surely  it  would  be  most  proper  for  the  Prophet 
of  God  to  make  them." 

"When  anyone  of  you  wishes  to  demand  a  woman  in  marriage,  if  he 
can  arrange  it,  let  him  see  her  first." 

"A  woman  ripe  in  years  shall  have  her  consent  asked  in  marriage, 
and  if  she  remain  silent  her  silence  is  her  consent,  and  if  she  refuse  she 
shall  not  be  married  by  force." 

"A  widow  shall  not  be  married  until  she  be  consulted,  nor  shall 
a  virgin  be  married  until  her  consent  be  asked."  The  Companions 
said,  "In  what  manner  is  the  permission  of  a  virgin  ?"  He  replied,  "Her 
consent  is  by  her  silence." 

"If  a  woman  marries  without  the  consent  of  her  guardian,  her  mar- 
riage is  null  and  void,  is  null  and  void,  is  null  and  void;  then  if  her 
marriage  hath  been  consummated,  the  woman  shall  take  her  dower;  if 
her  guardians  dispute  about  her  marriage,  then  the  king  is  her  guardian." 

The  subject  of  Moslem  marriages  will  noiw  be  treated  in  the  present 
article  under  the  headings — I.  The  Validity  of  Marriage.  II.  The  Legal 
Disabilities  to  Marriage.  III.  The  Religious  Ceremony.  IV.  The 
Marriage  Festivities. 

I.— THE  VALIDITY  OF  MARRIAGE. 

Moslems  are  permitted  to  marry  four  free  women,  and  to  have  as 
many  slaves  for  concubines  as  they  may  have  acquired.  See  Koran, 
Sura  iv.  3  :  "Of  women  who  seem  good  in  your  eyes,  marry  two,  or  three 
or  four ;  and  if  ye  still  fear  that  ye  shall  not  act  equitable,  then  one  only ; 
or  the  slaves  whom  ye'  have  acquired." 

Usufructuary  or  temporary  marriages  were  sanctioned  by  the 


360 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Prophet,  but  this  law  is  said  by  the  Sunnis  to  have  been  abrogated, 
although  it  is  allowed  by  the  Sh'ahs,  and  is  practiced  in  Persia  in  the 
present  day.  These  temporary  marriages  are  undoubtedly  the  greatest 
blot  in  Mohammed's  moral  legislation,  and  admit  of  no  satisfactory 
apology. 

Marriage,  according  to  Mohammedan  law,  is  simply  a  civil  contract, 
and  its  validity  does  not  depend  upon  any  religious  ceremony.  Though 
the  civil  contract  is  not  positively  prescribed  to  be  reduced  in  writing, 
its  validity  depends  upon  the  consent  of  the  parties,  which  is  called 
ijab  and  gabul,  "declaration"  and  "acceptance ;"  the  presence  of  the 
two  male  witnesses  (or  one  male  and  two  female  witnesses) :  and  a 
dower  of  not  less  than  ten  dirhams,  to  be  settled  upon  the  woman.  The 
omission  of  the  settlement  does  not,  however,  invalidate  the  contract, 
for  under  any  circumstances,  the  woman  becomes  entitled  to  her  dower 
of  ten  dirhams  or  more.  (A  dower  suitable  to  the  position  of  the  woman 
is  called  Mahry  '1-misl). 

Liberty  is  allowed  a  woman  who  has  reached  the  age  of  puberty, 
to  marry  or  refuse  to  marry  a  particular -man,  independent  of  her  guard- 
ian, who  has  no  power  to  dispose  of  her  in  marriage  while  the  objec- 
tion is  reserved  for  the  girl,  married  by  her  guardian  during  her  infancy, 
to  ratify  or  dissolve  the  contract  immediately  on  reaching  her  majority. 
When  a  woman,  adult  and  sane,  elects  to  be  married  through  an  agent 
(wakil),  she  empowers  him,  in  the  presence  of  competent  witnesses,  to 
convey  her  consent  to  the  bridegroom.  The  agent,  if  a  stranger,  need 
not  see  her,  and  it  is  sufficient  that  the  witnesses,  who  see  her,  satisfy 
him  that  she,  expressly  or  impliedly  consents  to  the  proposition  of 
which  he  is  the  bearer.  The  law  respects  the  modesty  of  the  sex,  and 
allows  the  expression  of  consent  on  the  part  of  the  lady  by  indirect 
ways,  even  without  words.  With  a  virgin,  silence  is  taken  as  consent, 
and  so  is  a  smile  or  a  laugh. 

A  contract  entered  into  by  a  person  who  is  insane  is  null  and  void, 
unless  it  is  made  during  a  lucid  interval.  A  slave  cannot  enter  into  a 
contract  of  marriage  without  the  consent  of  his  master.  The  Musselman 
lawyers,  therefore,  add  freedom  (hurriyet)  as  one  of  the  conditions  to 
the  capacity  for  marriage. 

Majority  is  presumed,  among  the  Hanafis  and  the  Shiahs,  on  the 
completion  of  the  fifteenth  year,  in  the  case  of  both  males  and  females, 
unless  there  is  any  evidence  to  show  that  puberty  was  attained  earlier. 

"Besides  puberty  and  discretion,  the  capacity  to  marry  requires  that 
there  should  be  no  legal  disability  or  bar  to  the  union  of  the  parties; 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


361 


that  in  fact,  they  should  not  be  within  the  prohibited  degrees,  or  so  re- 
lated to  or  connected  with  each  other  as  to  make  their  union  unlawful." 

With  regard  to  the  consent  of  the  woman,  Mr.  Syed  Ameer  Ali 
remarks : — 

"No  contract  can  be  said  to  be  complete  unless  the  contracting 
parties  understand  its  nature  and  mutually  consent  to  it.  A  contract  of 
marriage  also  implies  mutual  consent,  and  when  the  parties  see  one 
another,  and  of  their  own  accord  agree  to  bind  themselves,  both  having 
the  capacity  to  do  so,  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  validity  of  the  mar- 
riage. Owing,  however,  to  the  privacy  in  which  Eastern  women  gen- 
erally live,  and  the  difficulties  under  which  they  labor  in  the  exercise 
of  their  own  choice  in  matrimonial  matters,  the  Mohammedan  law, 
with  somewhat  wearying  particularity,  lays  down  the  principle  by  which 
they  may  not  only  protect  themselves  from  the  cupidity  of  their  natural 
guardians,  but  may  also  have  a  certain  scope  in  the  selection  of  their 
husbands. 

"For  example,  when  a  marriage  is  contracted  on  behalf  of  an  adult 
person  of  either  sex,  it  is  an  essential  condition  to  its  validity  that  such 
person  should  consent  thereto,  or,  in  other  words,  marriage  contracted 
without  his  or  her  authority  or  consent  is  null,  by  whomsoever  it  may 
have  been  entered  into." 

Among  the  Hanafis  and  the  Shiahs,  the  capacity  of  a  woman,  who 
is  adult  and  sane,  to  contract  herself  in  marriage  is  absolute.  The 
Shiah  law  is  most  explicit  on  this  point.  It  expressly  declares  that,  in  the 
marriage  of  a  discreet  female  (rashidah)  who  is  adult,  no  guardian  is 
required.  The  Hidaya  holds  the  same  opinion.  A  woman  (it  says)  who 
is  adult  and  sound  of  mind,  may  be  married  by  virtue  of  her  own  con- 
sent, although  the  contract  may  not  have  been  made  or  acceded  to  by 
her  guardians,  and  this  whether  she  be  a  virgin  or  saibbah.  Among 
the  Shafais  and  the  Malikis,  although  the  consent  of  the  adult  virgin 
is  an  essential  to  the  validity  of  the  contract  of  marriage  entered  into  on 
her  behalf,  as  among  the  Hanafis  and  the  Shiahs  she  cannot  contract 
herself  in  marriage  without  intervention  of  a  wali. 

When  the  woman  has  authorized  her  guardian  to  marry  her  to  a 
-  -ticular  individual,  or  has  consented  to  a  marriage  proposition  to 
her  by  a  specific  person,  the  guardian  has  no  power  to  marry  her  to 
another.  Under  the  Shiah  law,  a  woman  who  is  adult  and  discreet  is 
herself  competent  to  enter  into  contract  of  marriage.  She  requires 
no  representative  or  intermediary  through  whom  to  give  her  consent. 
"If  her  guardians,"  says  the  Sharaya,  "refuse  to  marry  her  to  an  equal 


362 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


when  desired  to  do  so,  there  is  no  doubt  that  she  is  entitled  to  contract 
herself,  even  against  their  wish."  The  Shiahs  agree  with  the  Hanafis 
in  giving  the  females  the  power  of  representing  others  in  matrimonial 
contracts.  In  a  contract  of  marriage,  full  regard  is  to  be  paid  to  the 
words  of  a  female  who  is  adult  and  sane,  that  is,  possessed  of  sound 
understanding;  she  is,  accordingly,  not  only  qualified  to  contract  her- 
self, but  also  to  act  as  the  agent  of  another  in  giving  expression,  either 
to  the  declaration  or  to  the  consent.  The  Mafatih  and  the  Jama-ush- 
Shattat,  also  declare  'that  it  is  not  requisite  that  the  parties  through 
whom  a  contract  is  entered  into  should  both  be  males,  since  with  us 
(the  Shiahs)  a  contract  made  through  (the  agency  or  intermediation  of) 
a  female  is  valid."  To  recapitulate.  Under  the  Maliki  and  Shafai  law, 
the  marriage  of  an  adult  girl  is  not  valid  unless  her  consent  is  obtained 
to  it ;  but  such  consent  must  be  given  through  a  legally  authorized  wali, 
who  would  act  as  her  representative.  Under  the  Hanafl  and  Shiah  law, 
the  woman  can  consent  to  her  own  marriage,  either  with  or  without 
a  guardian  or  agent. 

II.— THE  LEGAL  DISABILITIES  TO  MARRIAGE. 

There  are  nine  prohibitions  to  marriage,  namely: 

(1)  Consanguinity,  which  includes  mother,  grandmother,  sister, 
niece,  aunt,  etc. 

(2)  Affinity,  which  includes  mother-in-law,  step-grandmother, 
daughter-in-law,  step-granddaughter,  etc. 

(3)  Fosterage.  A  man  cannot  marry  his  foster-mother,  nor  foster- 
sister,  unless  the  foster-brother  and  sister  are  nursed  by  the  same  mother 
at  intervals  widely  separated.  But  a  man  may  marry  the  mother  of  his 
foster-sister,  or  the  foster-mother  of  his  sister. 

(4)  A  man  may  not  marry  his  wife's  sister  during  his  wife's  life- 
time, unless  she  be  divorced. 

(5)  A  man  married  to  a  free  woman  cannot  marry  a  slave. 

(6)  It  is  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  marry  the  wife  or  mu'taddah  of 
another,  whether  the  iddah  be  on  account  of  repudiation  or  death.  That 
is,  he  cannot  marry  until  the  expiration  of  the  woman's  'iddah,  or  period 
of  probation. 

(7)  A  Moslem  cannot  marry  a  polytheist,  or  Majusiyah.  But  he 
may  marry  a  Jewess,  or  a  Christian,  or  a  Sabean. 

(8)  A  woman  is  prohibited  by  reason  of  property.  For  example,  it 
is  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  marry  his  own  slave,  or  a  woman  her  bond- 
man. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


363 


(9)  A  woman  is  prohibited  by  repudiation  or  divorce.  If  a  man 
pronounces  three  divorces  upon  a  wife  who  is  free,  or  two  upon  a  slave, 
she  is  not  lawful  to  him  until  she  shall  have  been  regularly  espoused 
by  another  man,  who  having  duly  consummated  the  marriage  afterwards 
divorces  her,  or  dies,  and  her  'iddah  from  him  be  accomplished. 

Mr.  Syed  Ameer  Ali  says: — 

"The  prohibitions  may  be  divided  into  four  heads,  viz.,  relative  or 
absolute,  prohibitive  or  directory.  They  arise  in  the  first  place  from 
legitimate  and  illegitimate  relationship  of  blood  (consanguinity) ;  sec- 
ondly, from  alliance  or  affinity  (al-musahrat)  ;  thirdly  from  fosterage ;  and 
fourthly,  from  completion  of  number  (i.e.  four).  The  ancient  Arabs 
permitted  the  union  of  step-mothers  and  mothers-in-law  on  one  side, 
and  step-sons  and  sons-in-law  on  the  other.  The  Koran  expressly 
forbids  this  custom :  '  Marry  not  women  whom  your  fathers  have  had 
to  wife  (except  what  is  already  past),  for  this  is  an  uncleanliness  and 
abomination,  and  an  evil  way.  (Sura  iv:26).  Then  come  the  more 
definite  prohibitions  in  the  next  verse :  'Ye  are  forbidden  to  marry 
your  mothers,  your  daughters,  your  sisters,  and  your  aunts,  both  on  the 
father's  and  on  the  mother's  side ;  your  brother's  daughters  and  your  sis- 
ter's daughters ;  your  mother's  who  have  given  you  suck  and  your  foster- 
sisters  ;  your  wives'  mothers,  your  daughters-in-law,  born  of  your  wives 
with  whom  you  had  cohabited.  Ye  are  also  prohibited  to  take  to  wife 
two  sisters  (except  what  is  already  past),  nor  to  marry  women  who 
are  already  married.' 

"The  prohibitions  founded  on  consanguinity  are  the  same  among 
the  Sunnis  as  among  the  Shiahs.  No  marriage  can  be  contracted  with  the 
ascendants,  with  the  descendants,  with  relations  of  the  second  rank,  such 
as  brothers  and  sisters  or  their  descendants,  with  paternal  and  maternal 
uncles  and  aunts.  Nor  can  a  marriage  be  contracted  with  a  natural  off- 
spring or  his  or  her  descendants.  Among  the  Shiahs,  marriage  is  for- 
bidden for  fosterage  in  the  same  order  as  in  the  case  of  nasah.  The 
Sunnis,  however,  permit  marriage  in  spite  of  fosterage  in  the  following 
cases :  The  marriage  of  the  father  of  the  child  with  the  mother  of  his 
child's  foster-mother,  or  with  her  daughter ;  the  marriage  of  the  foster- 
mother  with  the  brother  of  the  child  whom  she  hath  fostered ;  the  mar- 
riage with  the  foster-mother  of  an  uncle  or  aunt.  The  relationship  by 
fosterage  arises  among  the  Shiahs  when  the  child  has  been  really  nour- 
ished at  the  breast  of  the  foster-mother.  Among  the  Sunnis,  it  is  re- 
quired that  the  child  should  have  been  suckled  at  least  fifteen  times,  or 
at  least  a  day  and  a  night. 


364 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


"Among  the  Hanafis,  it  is  enough  if  it  have  been  suckled  only  once. 
Among  the  Shafais  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  been  suckled  four 
times.  There  is  no  difference  among  the  Sunnis  and  the  Shiahs  regard- 
ing the  prohibitions  arising  from  alliance.  Under  the  Shrah  law,  a 
woman  against  whom  a  proceeding  by  laan  (li'an)  has  taken  place  on 
the  ground  of  her  adultery,  and  who  is  thereby  divorced  from  her  hus- 
band, cannot  undeir  any  circumstances  re-marry  him.  The  Shafais  and 
Maliks  agree  in  this  opinion  with  the  Shiahs.  The  Hanafis,  however, 
allow  a  re-marriage  with  a  woman  divorced  by  laan.  The  Shiahs  as 
well  as  the  Shafais,  Malakis  and  Hanbalis  hold  that  a  marriage  with 
a  woman  who  is  already  pregnant  (by  another)  is  absolutely  illegal. 
All  the  schools  prohibit  contemporaneous  marriages  with  two  women 
so  related  to  each  other  that  supposing  either  of  them  to  be  a  male  a 
marriage  between  them  would  be  illegal.  Illicit  intercourse  between  a 
man  and  a  woman  according  to  the  Hanafis  and  Shiahs,  prohibits  the 
man  from  marrying  the  woman's  mother  as  well  as  her  daughter.  The 
observant  student  of  the  law  of  the  two  principal  sects  which  divide  the 
world  of  Islam,  cannot  fail  to  notice  the  distinctive  peculiarity  existing 
between  them  in  respect  to  their  attitude  to  outside  people.  The  nations 
who  adopted  the  Shiah  doctrines  never  seem  to  have  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  Christian  races  of  the  West  to  any  marked  extent ;  whilst 
their  relations  with  the  Mago  Zoroastrians  of  the  East  were  both  in- 
timate and  lasting.  The  Gunnis,  on  the  other  hand,  seem  always  to  have 
been  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  Western  nations.  In  consequence  of 
the  different  position  which  followers  of  the  sects  occupied  toward  non- 
Moslems,  a  wide  divergence  exists  between  the  Shivah  and  Sunni  schools 
of  law  regarding  intermarriages  between  Moslems  and  non-Moslems. 
It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  Koran,  for  political  reasons,  for- 
bade all  unions  between  Musselmans  and  idolators.  It  is  said  in  explicit 
terms,  'Mary  not  a  woman  of  the  Polytheists  until  she  embraces  Islam.'" 
But  it  is  also  declared  that  'such  women  as  are  muhsinas  (of  chaste  repu- 
tation) belonging  to  the  scriptural  sects,'  or  believing  in  a  revealed  or 
moral  religion,  'are  lawful  to  Moslems.'  They  allow,  however,  tempo- 
rary contracts  extending  over  a  term  of  years,  or  a  certain  specified 
period  with  a  Christian,  Jew,  or  a  Magian  female. 

"A  female  Moslem  cannot  under  any  circumistances  marry  a  non- 
Moslem.  Both  schools  prohibit  a  Mohammedan  from  marrying  an  idol- 
atrous female,  or  one  who  worships  the  stars  or  any  kind  of  fetish  what- 
soever. 

"These  prohibitions  are  relative  in  their  nature  and  in  their  effect. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


365 


They  do  not  imply  the  absolute  nullity  of  the  marriage.  For  example, 
when  a  Mohammedan  marries  a  Hindoo  woman  in  a  place  where  the 
laws  of  Islam  are  in  force,  the  marriage  only  is  invalid,  and  does  not 
affect  the  status  of  legitimacy  of  the  offspring." 

III.— THE  RELIGIOUS  CEREMONY. 

The  Mohammedan  law  appoints  no  specific  religious  ceremony,  nor 
are  any  religious  rites  necessary  for  the  contraction  of  a  valid  marriage. 
Legally,  a  marriage  contracted  between  two  persons  possessing  the  ca- 
pacity to  enter  into  the  contract,  is  valid  and  binding,  if  entered  into  by 
mutual  consent  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  And  the  Shiah  law  even 
dispenses  with  witnesses. 

In  all  cases  the  religious  ceremony  is  left. entirely  to  the  discretion 
of  the  Qazi  or  person  who  performs  the  ceremony,  and  consequently 
there  is  no  uniformity  of  ritual.  Some  Qazis  merely  recite  the  Fatibah 
(the  first  chapter  of  the  Koran),  and  the  durad,  or  blessing.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  more  common  order  of  performing  the  service.  The  Qazi, 
the  bridegroom,  and  the  bride's  attorney,  with  the  witnesses,  having 
assembled  in  some  convenient  place  (but  not  in  a  mosque),  arrange- 
ments are  made  as  to  the  amount  of  dower  or  mahr.  The  bridegroom 
then  repeats  after  the  Qazi  the  following : 

1.  The  Istighfar.    "I  desire  forgiveness  from  God." 

2.  The  four  Quls.  The  four  chapters  of  the  Koran  commencing 
with  the  word  "Qui."  These  chapters  have  nothing  in  them  connected 
with  the  subject  of  marriage,  and  appear  to  be  selected  on  account  of 
their  brevity. 

3.  The  Kalimah,  or  Creed.  "There  is  no  Deity  but  God,  and  Mo- 
hammed is  the  Prophet  of  God." 

4.  The  Sifwatu  '1-Iman.  A  profession  of  belief  in  God,  the  Angels, 
the  Scriptures,  the  Prophets,  the  Resurrection,  and  the  absolute  Decree 
of  good  and  evil. 

The  Qazi  then  requests  the  bride's  attorney  to  take  the  hand  of  the 
bridegroom,  as  to  say,  "Such  an  one's  daughter,  by  the  agency  of  her 
attorney  and  by  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses,  has,  in  your  marriage 
with  her,  had  such  a  dower  settled  upon  her;  do  you  consent  to  it?" 
To  which  the  bridegroom  replies,  "With  my  whole  heart  and  soul,  to 
my  marriage  with  this  woman,  as  well  as  to  the  dower  already  settled 
upon  her,  I  consent,  I  consent,  I  consent." 

After  this  the  Qazi  raises  his  hands  and  offers  the  following  prayer  : 
"O  great  God!  grant  that  mutual  love  may  reign  between  this  couple,  as 


366 


PERSIA  BYcA  PERSIAN. 


it  existed  between  Adam  and  Eve,  Abraham  and  Sarah,  Joseph  and 
Zalikha,  Moses  and  Zipporah,  his  highness  Mohammed  and  'Ayesha, 
and  his  highness  'Ali-al-Murtaga  and  Fatimatu'z-Zahra." 

The  ceremony  being  over,  the  bridegroom  embraces  his  friends  and 
receives  their  congratulations. 

According  to  the  Durru'l-Mukhtar,  p.  196,  and  all  schools  of  Mos- 
lem law,  the  bridegroom  is  entitled  to  see  his  wife  before  the  marriage, 
but  Eastern  customs  very  rarely  allow  the  exercise  of  this  right,  and 
the  husband,  generally  speaking,  sees  his  wife  for  the  first  time  when 
leading  her  to  the  nuptial  chamber. 

HAREM,  OR  HAREBM. 

A  word  used  especially  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  for  the  female 
apartment  of  a  Mohammedan  household.  In  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
India,  the  terms  haramgah,  mahallsarai  and  zananah  are  used  for  the 
same  place.  The  seclusion  of  women  being  enjoined  in  the  Koran  in  all 
Mohammedan  countries  it  is  the  rule  for  respectable  women  to  remain 
secluded  at  home,  and  not  to  travel  abroad  unveiled,  nor  to  associate 
with  men  other  than  their  husbands  or  such  male  relatives  as  are  for- 
bidden in  marriage  by  reason  of  consanguinity.  In  consequence  of  these 
injunctions,  which  have  all  the  force  of  a  divine  enactment,  the  female 
portion  of  a  Mohammedan  family  always  reside  in  apartments  which 
are  in  an  inclosed  courtyard  and  excluded  from  public  view.  This  in- 
closure  is  called  the  harem  and  sometimes  hareem,  or  in  Persian  zananah, 
from  zan,  a  "woman."  "The  habitable  buildings  of  a  native  Mohamme- 
dan home  are  raised  a  few  steps  from  the  court,  a  line  of  pillars  forms 
the  front  of  the  building,  which  has  no  upper  rooms ;  the  roof  is  flat,  and 
the  sides  and  back  without  windows,  or  any  aperture  through  which  air 
can  be  received.  The  sides  and  back  are  merely  high  walls,  forming  an 
inclosure,  and  the  only  air  is  admitted  from  the  fronts  of  the  dwelling 
place  facing  the  courtyard.  The  apartments  are  divided  into  long  halls, 
the  extreme  corners  having  small  rooms  or  dark  closets  purposely  built 
for  the  repository  of  valuables  or  stores ;  doors  are  fixed  to  these  closets, 
which  are  the  only  places  I  have  seen  with  them  in  a  zananah  or  mahall 
(house  or  palace  occupied  by  females) ;  the  floor  is  either  of  beaten 
earth,  bricks  or  stones;  boarded  floors  are  not  yet  introduced.  As  they 
have  neither  doors  nor  windows  to  the  halls,  warmth  or  privacy  is  se- 
cured by  means  of  thick  wadded  curtains,  made  to  fit  each  opening  be- 
tween the  pillars.  Some  zananah s  have  two  rows  of  pillars  in  the  halls 
with  wadded  curtains  to  each,  thus  forming  two  distinct  halls  for  service 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


367 


or  greater  warmth,  as  occasion  may  require;  this  is  a  convenient  ar- 
rangement, where  the  establishment  of  servants,  slaves,  etc.,  is  extensive. 

"The  wadded  curtains  are  called  pardahs ;  these  are  sometimes 
made  of  woolen  cloth,  but  more  generally  of  coarse  calico,  of  two  colors, 
in  patchwork  style,  striped,  vandyked,  or  in  some  other  ingeniously  con- 
trived and  ornamented  way,  according  to  their  individual  taste. 

"Besides  the  pardahs,  the  openings  between  the  pillars  have  blinds 
neatly  made  of  fine  bamboo  strips,  woven  together  with  colored  cords ; 
these  are  called  chicks.  Many  of  them  are  painted  green,  others  are 
more  gaudy,  both  in  color  and  variety  of  patterns.  These  blinds  consti- 
tute a  real  comfort  to  everyone  in  India,  as  they  admit  air  when  let  down, 
and  at  the  same  time  shut  out  flies  and  other  annoying  insects ;  besides 
which,  the  extreme  glare  is  shaded  by  them — a  desirable  object  to  for- 
eigners in  particular. 

"The  floors  of  the  halls  are  first  matted  with  the  coarse  date-leaf 
matting  of  the  country,  over  which  are  spread  shatranjis  (thick  cotton 
carpets,  peculiarly  the  manufacture  of  the  Upper  Provinces  of  India, 
woven  in  stripes  of  blue  and  white,  or  shades  of  blue) ;  a  white  calico 
carpet  covers  the  shatranji  on  which  the  females  take  their  seat. 

"The  bedsteads  of  the  family  are  placed,  during  the  day,  in  lines 
at  the  back  of  the  halls,  to  be  moved  at  pleasure  to  any  chosen  spot  for 
the  night's  respose;  often  into  the  open  courtyard,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
pure  air.  They  are  all  formed  on  one  principle,,  differing  only  in  size 
and  quality;  they  stand  about  half  a  yard  from  the  floor,  the  legs  round 
and  broad  at  bottom,  narrowing  as  they  rise  towards  the  frame,  which  is 
laced  over  with  a  thick  cotton  tape,  made  for  the  purpose,  and  plaited  in 
checquers,  and  thus  rendered  soft,  or  rather  elastic,  and  very  pleasant  to 
recline  upon.  The  legs  of  these  bedsteads  are  in  some  instances  gold 
and  silver  gilt,  or  pure  silver;  others  have  enamel  paintings  on  fine 
wood ;  the  inferior  grades  have  them  merely  of  wood  painted  plain  and 
varnished.  The  servants'  bedsteads  are  of  the  common  mango-wood 
without  ornament,  the  lacing  of  these  for  the  sacking  being  of  elastic 
string  manufactured  from  the  fiber  of  the  cocoanut. 

"Such  are  the  bedsteads  of  every  class  of  people.  They  seldom 
have  mattresses ;  a  white  quilt  is  spread  on  the  lacing,  over  which  a  calico 
sheet,  tied  at  each  corner  of  the  bedstead  with  cords  and  tassels;  sev- 
eral thin  flat  pillows  of  beaten  cotton  for  the  head;  a  muslin  sheet  for 
warm  weather,  and  a  well  wadded  razai  (cover-lid)  for  winter  is  all  these 
children  of  Nature  deem  essential  to  their  comfort  in  the  way  of  sleeping. 
They  have  no  idea  of  night-dresses;  the  same  suit  that  adorns  a  lady 


368 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


is  retained  both  night  and  day,  until  a  change  be  needed.  The  single 
article  exchanged  at  night  is  the  dupatta  (a  small  shawl  for  the  head), 
and  that  only  when  it  happens  to  be  of  silver  tissue  or  embroidery,  for 
which  a  muslin  or  calico  sheet  is  substituted. 

"The  very  highest  circles  have  the  same  habits  in  common  with  the 
meanest,  but  those  who  can  afford  shawls  of  cashmere,  prefer  them  for 
sleeping  in,  when  the  cold  weather  renders  them  bearable.  Blankets  are 
never  used  except  by  the  poorest  peasantry,  who  wear  them  in  lieu  of 
better  garments  night  and  day  in  the  winter  season ;  they  are  always 
black,  the  natural  color  of  the  wool.  The  quilts  of  the  higher  orders 
are  generally  made  of  silk  of  the  brightest  hues,  well  wadded,  and  lined 
with  dyed  muslin  of  assimilating  color;  they  are  usually  bound  with 
broad  silver  ribbons,  and  sometimes  bordered  with  gold  brocaded  trim- 
mings. The  middling  classes  have  fine  chintz  quilts,  and  the  servants 
and  slaves  coarse  ones  of  the  same  material ;  but  all  are  on  the  same 
plan,  whether  for  a  queen  or  the  meanest  of  her  slaves,  differing  only 
in  the  quality  of  the  material.  The  mistress  of  the  house  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  her  seat  of  honor  in  the  hall  of  a  zananah,  a  masnad  not 
being  allowed  to  any  other  person  but  the  lady  of  the  mansion.  The 
masnad  carpet  is  spread  on  the  floor,  if  possible  near  to  a  pillar  about 
the  center  of  the  hall,  and  is  made  of  many  varieties  of  fabric — gold 
cloth,  quilted  silk,  brocaded  silk,  velvet,  fine  chintz,  or  whatever  may 
suit  the  lady's  taste,  circumstances,  or  convenience.  It  is  about  two 
yards  square,  and  generally  bordered  or  fringed,  on  which  is  placed  the 
all-important  masnad.  This  article  may  be  understood  by  those  who 
have  seen  a  lacemaker's  pillow  in  England,  excepting  only  that  the  mas- 
nad is  about  twenty  times  the  size  of  that  useful  little  article  in  the  hands 
of  our  industrious  villagers.  The  masnad  is  covered  with  gold  cloth, 
silk,  velvet,  or  calico,  with  square  pillows  to  correspond,  for  the  elbows, 
the  knees,  etc.  This  is  the  seat  of  honor,  to  be  invited  to  share  which 
with  the  lady  owner,  is  a  mark  of  favor  to  an  equal  or  inferior;  when  a 
superior  pays  a  visit  of  honor,  the  prized  seat  is  usually  surrendered  to 
her,  and  the  lady  of  the  house  takes  her  place  most  humbly  on  the  edge 
of  her  own  carpet.  Looking-glasses  or  ornamental  furniture  are  very 
rarely  to  be  seen  in  the  zananah,  even  of  the  very  richest  families.  Chairs 
and  sofas  are  produced  when  English  visitors  are  expected ;  but  the 
ladies  of  Hindoostan  prefer  the  usual  mode  of  sitting  and  lounging  on 
the  carpet;  and  as  for  tables,  I  suppose  not  one  gentlewoman  of  the 
whole  country  has  ever  been  seated  at  one ;  and  very  few,  perhaps,  have 
any  idea  of  their  useful  purposes,  all  their  meals  being  served  on  the 


RELIGIONS  OFfPERSIA. 


301) 


floor,  where  dastarkhwans  (table-cloths  we  should  call  them)  are  spread, 
but  neither  knives,  forks,  spoons,  glasses,  nor  napkins,  so  essential  to 
the  comfortable  enjoyment  of  a  meal  amongst  Europeans.  But  those 
who  never  knew  such  comforts  have  no  desire  for  the  indulgence,  nor 
taste  to  appreciate  them. 

"On  the  several  occasions,  amongst  native  society,  of  assembling 
in  large  parties,  as  at  births  and  marriages,  the  halls,  although  extensive, 
would  be  inadequate  to  accommodate  the  whole  party.  They  then  have 
awnings  of  white  calico,  neatly  flounced  with  muslin,  supported  on  poles 
fixed  in  the  courtyard,  and  connecting  the  open  space  with  the  great 
hall,  by  wooden  platforms  which  are  brought  to  a  line  with  the  building, 
and  covered  with  shatranji,  and  white  carpets  to  correspond  with  the 
floor  furniture  of  the  hall;  and  here  the  ladies  sit  by  day  and  sleep  by 
night  very  comfortable,  without  feeling  any  great  inconvenience  from 
the  absence  of  their  bedsteads,  which  could  never  be  arranged  for  ac- 
commodation of  so  large  an  assemblage — nor  is  it  ever  expected. 

"The  usually  barren  look  of  these  almost  unfurnished  halls  is  on 
such  occasions  quite  changed,  when  the  ladies  are  assembled  in  then 
various  dresses;  the  brilliant  display  of  jewels,  the  glittering  drapery  of 
their  dress,  the  various  expressions  of  countenance,  and  different  fig- 
ures, the  multitude  of  female  attendants  and  slaves,  the  children  of  all 
ages  and  sizes  in  their  variously  ornamented  dresses,  are  subjects  to  at- 
tract both  the  eye  and  the  mind  of  an  observing  visitor;  and  the  hall, 
which  when  empty,  appeared  desolate  and  comfortless,  thus  filled,  leaves 
nothing  wanting  to  render  the  scene  attractive. 

"The  buzz  of  human  voices,  the  happy  playfulness  of  the  children, 
the  chaste  singing  of  the  domnis  fill  up  the  animated  picture.  I  have 
sometimes  passed  an  hour  or  two  in  witnessing  their  innocent  amuse- 
ments, without  any  feeling  of  regret  for  the  brief  sacrifice  of  time  I  have 
made.  I  am  free  to  confess,  however,  that  I  have  returned  to  my  tran- 
quil home  with  increased  delight  after  having  witnessed  the  bustle  of  a 
zananah  assembly.  At  first  I  pitied  the  apparent  monotony  of  their 
lives ;  but  this  feeling  has  worn  away  by  intimacy  with  the  people,  who 
are  thus  precluded  from  mixing  generally  with  the  world.  They  are 
happy  in  their  confinement ;  and  never  having  felt  the  sweets  of  liberty, 
would  not  know  how  to  use  the  boon  if  it  were  to  be  granted  them.  As 
the  bird  from  the  nest  immured  in  a  cage  is  both  cheerful  and  contented, 
so  are  those  females.  They  have  not,  it  is  true,  many  intellectual  re- 
sources, but  they  have  naturally  good  understandings,  and  having  learned 
their  duty  they  strive  to  fulfill  it.   So  far  as  I  have  had  any  opportunity 


370 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


of  making  personal  observations  on  their  general  character,  they  appear 
to  me  obedient  wives,  dutiful  daughters,  affectionate  mothers,  kind  mis- 
tresses, sincere  friends  and  liberal  benefactresses  to  the  distressed  poor. 
These  are  their  moral  qualifications,  and  in  their  religious  duties,  they 
are  zealous  in  performing  the  several  ordinances  which  they  have  been 
instructed  by  their  parents  or  husbands  to  observe.  If  there  be  any 
merit  in  obeying  the  injunctions  of  their  law-giver,  those  whom  I  have 
known  most  intimately,  deserve  praise  since  'they  are  faithful  in  that 
they  profess.' 

"To  ladies  accustomed  from  infancy  to  confinement,  this  kind  of 
rife  is  by  no  means  irksome;  they  have  their  employments  and  their 
amusements,  and  though  these  are  not  exactly  to  our  taste,  nor  suited 
to  our  mode  of  education,  they  are  not  the  less  relished  by  those  for 
whom  they  were  invented.  They  perhaps  wonder  equally  at  some  of  our 
modes  of  dissipating  time,  and  fancy  we  might  spend  it  more  profitably. 
Be  that  as  it  may,  the  Moslem  ladies,  with  whom  I  have  been  long  inti- 
mate, appear  to  me  always  happy,  contented,  and  satisfied  with  the  se- 
clusion to  which  they  were  born ;  they  desire  no  other,  and  I  have  ceased 
to  regret  they  cannot  be  made  partakers  of  that  freedom  of  intercourse 
with  the  world,  we  deem  so  essential  to  our  happiness,  since  their 
health  suffers  nothing  from  that  confinement,  by  which  they  are  pre- 
served from  a  variety  of  snares  and  temptations;  besides  which,  they 
would  deem  it  disgraceful  in  the  highest  degree  to  mix  indiscriminately 
with  men  who  are  not  relations.  They  are  educated  from  infancy  for  re- 
tirement, and  they  can  have  no  wish  that  the  custom  should  be  changed, 
which  keeps  them  apart  from  the  society  of  men  who  are  not  very 
nearly  related  to  them.  Female  society  is  unlimited,  and  that  they  enjoy 
without  restraint. 

"Those  females  who  rank  above  peasants  or  inferior  servants  are 
disposed  from  principle  to  keep  themselves  strictly  from  observation; 
all  who  have  any  regard  for  the  character  or  the  honor  of  their  house, 
seclude  themselves  from  the  eye  of  strangers,  carefully  instructing  their 
young  daughters  to  a  rigid  observance  of  their  own  prudent  example. 
Little  girls,  when  four  years  old,  are  kept  strictly  behind  the  pardah 
(i.  e.,  "curtain"),  and  when  they  move  about  it  is  always  in  covered  con- 
veyances, and  under  the  guardianship  of  a  faithful  female  domestic,  who 
is  equally  tenacious  as  the  mother  to  preserve  the  young  lady's  reputa- 
tion unblemished  by  concealing  her  from  the  gaze  of  men. 

"The  ladies  -of  zananah  life  are  not  restricted  from  the  society  of 
their  own  sex;  they  are,  as  I  have  before  remarked,  extravagantly  fond 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


371 


of  company,  and  equally  as  hospitable  when  entertained.  To  be  alone 
is  a  triaj  to  which  they  are  seldom  exposed,  every  lady  having  com- 
panions amongst  her  dependants ;  and  according  to  her  means  the  num- 
ber in  her  establishment  is  regulated.  Some  ladies  of  rank  have  from 
two  to  ten  companions,  independent  of  slaves  and  domestics;  and  there 
are  some  of  the  royal  family  at  Lucknow  who  entertain  in  their  serv- 
ice two  or  three  hundred  female  dependants,  of  all  classes.  A  well- 
fitted  zananah  is  a  mark  of  gentility,  and  even  the  poorest  lady  in  the 
country  will  retain  a  number  of  slaves  and  domestics,  if  she  cannot  af- 
ford companions ;  besides  which  they  are  miserable  without  society,  the 
habit  of  associating  with  numbers  having  grown  up  with  infancy  to 
maturity:  "to  be  alone,"  is  considered,  with  women  thus  situated,  a 
real  calamity. 

"On  occasions  of  assembling  in  large  parties,  each  lady  takes  with 
her  a  companion  besides  two  or  three  slaves  to  attend  upon  her,  no  one 
expecting  to  be  served  by  the  servants  of  the  house  at  which  they  are 
visiting.  This  swells  the  number  to  be  provided  for;  and  as  the  visit 
is  always  for  three  days  and  three  nights  (except  on  'Ids,  when  the  visit 
is  confined  to  one  day)  some  forethought  must  be  exercised  by  the  lady 
of  the  house,  that  all  may  be  accommodated  in  such  manner  as  may 
secure  to  her  the  reputation  of  hospitality. 

"The  kitchen  and  offices  to  the  zananah,  I  have  remarked,  occupy 
one  side  of  the  quadrangle ;  they  face  the  great  or  center  hall  appropri- 
ated to  the  assembly.  These  kitchens,  however,  are  sufficiently  distant 
to  prevent  any  great  annoyance  from  the  smoke — I  say  smoke,  because 
chimneys  have  not  yet  been  introduced  into  the  kitchens  of  the  natives. 

"The  fire-places  are  all  on  the  ground,  something  resembling  stoves, 
each  admitting  one  saucepan,  the  Asiatic  style  of  cooking  requiring  no 
other  contrivance.  Roast  or  boiled  joints  are  never  seen  at  the  dinner 
of  a  native ;  a  leg  of  mutton  or  sirloin  of  beef  would  place  the  hostess 
under  all  sorts  of  difficulties,  where  knives  and  forks  are  not  understood 
to  be  amongst  the  useful  appendages  of  a  meal.  The  varieties  of  their 
dishes  are  countless,  but  stews  and  curries  are  the  chief;  all  the  others 
are  mere  varieties.  The  only  thing  in  the  shape  of  roast  meats  are 
small  lean  cutlets  bruised,  seasoned  and  cemented  with  pounded  poppy 
seed.  Several  being  fastened  together  on  skewers,  they  are  grilled  or 
roasted  over  a  charcoal  fire  spread  on  the  ground,  and  then  called  kabab, 
which  word  implies  roast  meat. 

"The  kitchen  of  a  zananah  would  be  inadequate  to  the  business  of 
cooking  for  a  large  assembly;  the  most  choice  dishes  only  (for  the 


372 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


highly-favored  guests)  are  cooked  by  the  servants  of  the  establishment. 
The  needed  abundance  required  in  entertaining  a  large  party  is  pro- 
vided by  a  regular  bazar  cook,  several  of  whom  establish  themselves  in 
native  cities,  or  wherever  there  is  a  Moslem  population.  Orders  being 
previously  given,  the  morning  and  evening  dinners  are  punctually  for- 
warded at  the  appointed  hours  in  covered  trays,  each  tray  having  por- 
tions of  the  several  good  things  ordered,  so  that  there  is  no  confusion 
in  serving  out  the  feast  on  its  arrival  at  the  mansion.  The  food  thus  pre- 
pared by  the  bazar  cook  is  plain  boiled  rice,  sweet  rice,  khir  (rice  milk), 
mutanjan  (rice  sweetened  with  the  addition  of  preserved  fruits,  raisins, 
etc.,  colored  with  saffron),  salans  (curries)  of  many  varieties,  some 
cooked  with  vegetables,  others  with  unripe  fruits  with  or  without  meat ; 
pulaos  of  many  sorts,  kababs,  preserves,  pickles,  chatnis,  and  many  other 
things  too  tedious  to  admit  of  detail. 

"The  bread  in  general  use  amongst  natives  is  chiefly  unleavened; 
nothing  in  the  likeness  of  English  bread  is  to  be  seen  at  their  meals ; 
and  many  object  to  its  being  fermented  with  the  intoxicating  toddy 
(extracted  from  a  tree).  Most  of  the  native  bread  is  baked  on  iron  plates 
over  a  charcoal  fire.  They  have  many  varieties,  both  plain  and  rich,  and 
some  of  the  latter  resembles  our  pastry,  both  in  quality  and  flavor. 

"The  dinners,  I  have  said,  are  brought  into  the  zananah,  ready 
dished  in  the  native  earthenware,  on  trays ;  and  as  they  neither  use 
spoons  nor  forks,  there  is  no  great  delay  in  setting  out  the  meal  where 
nothing  is  required  for  display  or  effect,  beyond  the  excellent  quality 
of  the  food  and  its  being  well  cooked.  In  a  large  assembly  all  cannot 
dine  at  the  dastarkhwan  of  the  lady  hostess,  even  if  privileged  by  their 
rank;  they  are,  therefore,  accommodated  in  groups  of  ten,  fifteen, 
or  more,  as  may  be  convenient ;  each  lady  having  her  companions  at  the 
meal,  and  her  slaves  to  brush  off  the  intruding  flies  with  a  chauri,  to 
hand  water,  or  to  fetch  or  carry  any  article  of  delicacy  from  or  to  a 
neighboring  group.  The  slaves  and  servants  dine  in  parties  after  their 
ladies  have  finished,  in  any  retired  corner  of  the  courtyard — always 
avoiding  as  much  as  possible  the  presence  of  their  superiors. 

"Before  anyone  touches  the  meal,  water  is  carried  round  for  each 
lady  to  wash  the  hand  and  rinse  the  mouth.  It  is  deemed  uncleanly  to 
eat  without  this  form  of  ablution,  and  the  person  neglecting  it  would 
be  held  unholy.  This  done,  the  lady  turns  to  her  meal,  saying,  'Bismillah !' 
(In  the  name  or  to  the  praise  of  God!),  and  with  the  right  hand  conveys 
the  food  to  her  mouth  (the  left  hand  is  never  used  at  meal) ;  and  although 
they  partake  of  every  variety  of  food  placed  before  them  with  no  other 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


37:! 


aid  than  their  fingers,  yet  the  mechanical  habit  is  so  perfect  that  they 
neither  drop  a  grain  of  rice,  soil  the  dress,  nor  retain  any  of  the  food 
on  their  fingers.  The  custom  must  always  be  offensive  to  a  foreign 
eye,  and  the  habit  none  would  wish  to  copy;  yet  everyone  who  wit- 
nesses must  admire  the  neat  way  in  which  eating  is  accomplished  by 
these  really  'Children  of  Nature.' 

"The  repast  concluded,  the  lota  (vessel  with  water),  and  the  lag- 
gan  (to  receive  the  water  in  after  rinsing  the  hands  and  mouth),  are 
passed  round.  To  every  person  who,  having  announced  by  the  'Ash- 
Shukrn  li'llah !'  (All  thanks  to  God !)  that  she  has  finished,  the  attend- 
ants present  first  the  powdered  peas,  called  besan, — which  answers  the 
purpose  of  soap  in  removing  grease,  etc.,  from  the  fingers — and  then 
the  water  in  due  course.  Soap  has  not  even  yet  been  brought  into  fash- 
ion by  the  natives,  except  by  the  washermen ;  I  have  often  been  sur- 
prised that  they  have  not  found  the  use  of  soap  a  necessary  article  in 
the  nursery  where  the  only  substitute  I  have  seen  is  the  powdered  pea. 

"Lotas  and  laggans  are  articles  in  use  with  all  classes  of  people; 
they  must  be  poor  indeed  who  do  not  boast  of  one,  at  least,  in  their 
family.  They  are  always  of  metal,  either  brass  or  copper  lacquered  over, 
or  zinc;  in  some  cases,  as  with  the  nobility,  silver  and  even  gold  are 
converted  into  these  useful  articles  of  native  comfort. 

"China  or  glass  is  comparatively  but  little  used ;  water  is  their 
only  beverage,  and  this  is  preferred,  in  the  absence  of  metal  basins,  out 
of  the  common  red  earthen  katora  (cup-shaped  like  a  vase). 

"China  dishes,  bowls,  and  basins,  are  used  for  serving  many  of  the 
savory  articles  of  food  in ;  but  it  is  common  in  the  privacy  of  the  palace, 
as  well  as  in  the  huts  of  the  peasantry,  to  see  many  choice  things  intro- 
duced at  meals  served  up  in  the  rude  red  earthen  platter;  many  of  the 
delicacies  of  Asiatic  cookery  being  esteemed  more  palatable  from  the 
earthen  flavor  of  the  new  vessel  in  which  it  is  served. 

"China  tea  sets  are  very  rarely  found  in  the  zananah,  tea  being  used 
by  the  natives  more  as  a  medicine  than  a  refreshment,  except  by  such 
gentlemen  as  have  frequent  intercourse  with  the  'Sahib  Log'  (English 
gentry),  among  whom  they  acquire  a  taste  for  this  delightful  beverage. 
The  ladies,  however,  must  have  a  severe  cold  to  induce  them  to  partake 
of  the  beverage  even  as  a  remedy,  but  by  no  means  as  a  luxury.  I 
imagined  that  the  inhabitants  of  a  zananah  were  sadly  deficient  in  actual 
comforts,  when  I  found,  upon  my  first  arrival  in  India,  that  there  were 
no  preparations  for  breakfast  going  forward ;  everyone  seemed  engaged 
in  pan-eating,  and  smoking  the  huggah,  but  no  breakfast  after  the 


374 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


morning  namaz.  I  was,  however,  soon  satisfied  that  they  felt  no  sort 
of  privation,  as  the  early  meal  so  common  in  Europe  has  never  been  in- 
troduced in  Eastern  circles.  Their  first  meal  is  a  good  substantial  din- 
ner at  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  o'clock,  after  which  follows  pan  and  the 
huggah ;  to  this  succeeds  a  sleep  of  two  or  three  hours,  providing  it  does 
not  impede  the  duty  of  prayer — the  pious,  I  ought  to  remark,  would 
give  up  every  indulgence  which  would  prevent  the  discharge  of  duty. 
The  second  meal  follows  in  twelve  hours  from  the  first,  and  consists  of 
the  same  substantial  fare;  after  which  they  usually  sleep  again  until  the 
dawn  of  day  is  near  at  hand. 

"The  huggah  (pipe)  is  almost  in  general  use  with  females.  It  is  a 
common  practice  with  the  lady  of  the  house  to  present  the  huggah  she  is 
smoking  to  her  favored  guest.  This  mark  of  attention  is  always  to  be 
duly  appreciated ;  but  such  is  the  deference  paid  to  parents,  that  a  son 
can  rarely  be  persuaded  by  an  indulgent  father  or  mother  to  smoke  a 
huggah- in  their  revered  presence;  the  praiseworthy  feeling  originates 
not  in  fear,  but  real  genuine  respect.  The  parents  entertain  for  their  son 
the  most  tender  regard ;  and  the  father  makes  him  both  his  companion 
and  friend ;  yet  the  most  familiar  endearments  do  not  lesson  the  feeling 
of  reverence  a  good  son  entertains  for  his  father.  This  is  one  among 
the  many  samples  of  patriarchal  life,  and  which  I  can  never  witness  in 
real  life,  without  feeling  respect  for  the  persons  who  follow  up  the  pat- 
terns I  have  been  taught  to  venerate  in  our  Holy  Scripture. 

"The  huggah  (pipe)  as  an  indulgence  or  a  privilege,  is  a  great  de- 
finer  of  etiquette.  In  the  presence  of  the  king  or  reigning  nawab.  no 
subject,  however  high  he  may  rank  in  blood  or  royal  flavor,  can  pre- 
sume to  smoke.  In  native  courts,  on  state  occasions,  huggahs  are  pre- 
sented only  to  the  Governor-General,  the  Commander-in-Chief,  or  the 
Resident  at  his  court,  who  are  considered  equal  in  rank,  and  therefore 
entitled  to  the  privilege  of  smoking  with  him ;  and  they  cannot  con- 
sistently resist  the  intended  honor.  Should  they  dislike  smoking,  a  hint 
is  readily  understood  by  the  huggah  bardar  to  bring  the  huggah, 
charged  with  the  materials,  without  the  addition  of  fire.  Applications 
of  the  munhnal  (mouthpiece)  to  the  mouth,  indicates  a  sense  of  the 
honor  conferred." 

CONCUBINE. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  appears  to  give  almost  unlimited  license 
to  concubinage,  provided  the  woman  be  a  slave,  and  not  a  free  Moslem 
woman.    These  female  slaves  must  be  either  (i)  taken  captive  in  war, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


375 


(2)  or  purchased  by  money,  (3)  or  the  descendants  of  slaves.  Even 
married  women,  if  taken  in  war,  are,  according  to  an  injunction  of  the 
Koran,  Sura  iv:28,  entirely  at  the  disposal  of  the  Moslem  conqueror. 
"(Unlawful)  to  you  are  married  women,  except  purchased  slaves.)"  This 
institution  of  concubinage  is  founded  upon  the  example  of  Mohammed 
himself,  who  took  Rihanah  .the  Jewess  as  his  concubine  after  the  battle 
with  the  Banu  Ouraizah  (A.  H.  5),  and  also  Maria  the  Copt,  who  was 
sent  him  as  a  slave  by  the  Governor  of  Egypt. 

Should  a  concubine  bear  her  master  a  child  the  Mohammedan  law 
rules  that  she  and  her  offspring  are  ipso  facto  free. 

Among  the  Shiahs,  the  temporary  marriage  called  Mut'ah  exhibits 
the  worst  form  of  concubinage. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  condition  of  the  concubine  under 
Moslem  law  and  under  the  Mosaic.  Under  the  law  of  Moses,  a  concu- 
bine would  generally  be  either  a  Hebrew  girl  bought  of  her  father,  or  a 
Gentile  captive  taken  in  war.  So  that  whilst  the  Mohammedan  law 
forbids  concubinage  with  a  free  woman,  the  Mosaic  law  permitted  it 
and  legislated  for  it.  See  Exodus  xxi :  "If  a  man  sell  his  daughter  to 
be  a  maid-servant,  she  shall  not  go  out  as  men-servants  do.  If  she 
please  not  her  master  who  has  betrothed  her  to  himself,  then  shall  he 
let  her  be  redeemed ;  to  sell  her  unto  a  strange  nation  he  shall  have  no 
power,  seeing  he  hath  dealt  deceitfully  with  her. 

With  regard  to  female  slaves  taken  in  war,  the  Mosaic  law  ruled 
(Deut.  xxi  :io) :  "When  thou  goest  to  war  against  thine  enemies,  and  the 
Lord  thy  God  hath  delivered  them  into  thine  hands,  and  thou  hast 
taken  them  captive,  and  seest  a  beautiful  woman,  and  hast  a  desire 
unto  her,  that  thou  wouldst  have  her  to  thy  wife;  then  thou  shalt  bring 
her  to  thine  home,  etc.  *  *  *  And  it  shall  be,  if  thou  have  no  de- 
light in  her,  then  thou  shalt  let  her  go  whither  she  will;  but  thou. shalt 
not  sell  her,"  etc. 

DIVORCE  (Arabic  talag). 

In  its  primitive  sense  the  word  talag  means  dismission,  but  in  law 
it  signifies  a  release  from  the  marriage  tie. 

The  Mohammedan  law  of  divorce  is  founded  upon  express  injunc- 
tions contained  in  the  Koran,  as  well  as  in  the  Traditions,  and  its  rules 
occupy  a  very  large  section  in  all  Mohammedan  works  on  jurisprudence. 

I.  The  teaching  of  the  Koran  on  the  subject  is  as  follows  : 

Sura  ii:226:    "They  who  intend  to  abstain  from  their  wives  shall 


376 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


wait  four  months ;  but  if  they  go  back  from  their  purpose,  then  verily 
God  is  Gracious,  Merciful. 

"And  if  they  resolve  on  a  divorce,  then  verily  God  is  He  who  Hear- 
eth,  Knows. 

"The  divorced  shall  wait  the  result,  until  they  have  had  their  courses 
thrice,  nor  ought  they  to  conceal  what  God  hath  created  in  their  wombs, 
if  they  believe  in  God  and  the  last  day ;  and  it  will  be  more  just  in  their 
husband's  to  bring  them  back  when  in  this  state,  if  they  desire  what  is 
right.  And  it  is  for  the  women  to  act  as  they  (the  husbands)  act  by 
them,  in  all  fairness ;  but  the  men  are  a  step  above  them.  God  is  Mighty, 
Wise. 

"Ye  may  give  sentence  of  divorce  to  your  wives  twice :  Keep  them 
honorably,  or  put  them  away  with  kindness.  But  it  is  not  allowed  you 
to  appropriate  to  yourselves  aught  of  what  ye  have  given  to  them,  unless 
both  fear  that  they  cannot  keep  within  the  bounds  set  up  by  God.  And 
if  ye  fear  that  they  cannot  observe  the  ordinances  of  God.  no  blame  shall 
attach  to  either  of  you  for  what  the  wife  shall  herself  give  for  her  re- 
demption. These  are  the  bounds  of  God :  therefore  overstep  them  not ; 
for  whoever  oversteppeth  the  bounds  of  God,  they  are  evildoers. 

"But  if  the  husband  give  sentence  of  divorce  to  her  a  third  time,  it 
is  not  lawful  for  him  to  take  her  again,  until  she  shall  have  married  an- 
other husband ;  and  if  he  also  divorce  her  then  shall  no  blame  attach  to 
them  if  they  return  to  each  other,  thinking  that  they  can  keep  within 
the  bounds  fixed  by  God.  And  these  are  the  bounds  of  God ;  He  mak- 
eth  them  clear  to  those  who  have  knowledge. 

"But  when  ye  divorce  women,  and  the  time  for  sending  them  away 
is  come,  either  retain  them  with  generosity,  or  put  them  away  with  gen- 
erosity: but  retain  them  not  by  constraint  so  as  to<  be  unjust  towards 
them.  He  who  doth  so,  doth  in  fact  injury  to  himself.  And  make  not 
the  signs  of  God  a  jest;  but  remember  God's  favor  towards  you,  and 
the  Book  and  the  Wisdom  which  He  hath  sent  down  to  you  for  your 
warning,  and  fear  God,  and  know  that  God's  knowledge  embraceth 
everything. 

"And  when  ye  divorce  your  wives,  and  they  have  waited  the  pre- 
scribed time,  hinder  them  not  from  marrying  the  husbands  when  they 
have  agreed  among  themselves  in  an  honorable  way.  This  warning  is 
for  him  among  you  who  believeth  in  God  and  in  the  last  day.  This  is 
most  pure  for  you,  and  most  decent.   God  knoweth,  but  ye  know  not. 

"Mothers,  when  divorced,  shall  give  suck  to  their  children  two  full 
years,  if  the  father  desire  that  the  suckling  be  completed ;  and  such 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


maintenance  and  clothing  as  is  fair  for  them,  shall  devolve  on  the  father. 
No  person  shall  be  charged  beyond  his  means.  A  mother  shall  not  be 
pressed  unfairly  for  her  child :  And  the  same  with  the  father's  heir. 
But,  if  they  choose  to  wean  the  child  by  consent  and  by  bargain,  it  shall 
be  no  fault  in  them.  And  if  ye  choose  to  have  a  nurse  for  your  children, 
it  shall  be  no  fault  in  you,  in  case  ye  pay  what  ye  promised  her  according 
to  that  which  is  fair.   Fear  God,  and  know  that  God  seeth  what  ye  do. 

"It  shall  be  no  crime  in  you  if  ye  divorce  your  wives  so  long  as  ye 
have  not  consummated  the  marriage,  nor  settled  any  dowry  on  them. 
And  provide  what  is  needful  for  them — he  who  is  in  ample  circum- 
stances according  to  his  means,  and  he  who  is  in  straitened  circum- 
stances according  to  his  means — with  fairness :  This  is  binding  on  those 
who  do  what  is  right. 

"But  if  ye  divorce  them  before  consummation,  and  have,  already 
settled  a  dowry  on  them,  ye  shall  give  them  half  of  what  ye  have  settled, 
unless  they  make  a  release,  or  he  make  a  release  in  whose  hand  is  the 
marriage  tie.   But  if  ye  make  a  release  it  will  be  nearer  to  piety." 

Sura  lxv:i:  "O  Prophet!  when  ye  divorce  women,  divorce  them 
at  their  special  times.  And  reckon  those  times  exactly,  and  fear  God 
your  Lord.  Put  them  not  forth  from  their  houses,  nor  allow  them  to 
depart,  unless  they  have  committed  a  proven  adultery.  This  is  the  pre- 
cept of  God ;  and  whoso  transgresseth  the  precept  of  God,  assurredly  im- 
perileth  his  own  self.  Thou  knowest  not  whether,  after  this,  God  may 
not  cause  something  new  to  occur  which  may  bring  you  together  again. 

"And  when  they  have  reached  their  set  time,  then  either  keep  them 
with  kindness,  or  in  kindness  part  from  them.  And  take  upright  wit- 
nesses from  among  you  and  bear  witness  as  unto  God.  This  is  a  cau- 
tion for  him  who  believeth  in  God  and  in  the  latter  day.  And  whoso 
feareth  God,  to  him  will  He  grant  a  prosperous  issue,  and  will  provide 
for  him  whence  he  reckoned  not  upon  it. 

"And  for  him  who  putteth  his  trust  in  Him  will  God  be  all-suffi- 
cient. God  truly  will  attain  his  purpose.  For  everything  hath  God  as- 
signed a  period. 

As  to  such  of  your  wives  as  have  no  hope  of  the  recurrence  of  their 
times,  if  ye  have  doubts  in  regard  to  them,  then  reckon  three  months, 
and  let  the  same  be  the  term  of  those  who  have  not  yet  had  them.  And 
as  to  those  who  are  with  child,  their  period  shall  be  until  they  are  deliv- 
ered of  their  burden.  God  will  make  His  command  easy  to  Him  who 
feareth  Him! 

"Lodge  the  divorced  wherever  ye  lodge,  according  to  your  means ; 


378 


and  distress  them  not  by  putting  them  to  straits.  And,  if  they  are  preg- 
nant, then  be  at  charges  for  them  till  they  are  delivered  of  their  burden ; 
and  if  they  suckle  your  children,  then  pay  them  their  hire  and  consult 
among  yourselves,  and  act  generously :  And  if  herein  ye  meet  with 
obstacles,  then  let  another  female  suckle  for  him." 

II.  The  teaching  of  Mohammed  on  the  general  subject  of  Divorce 
is  expressed  in  the  Tradition  as  follows : 

"The  thing  which  is  lawful  but  disliked  by  God  is  divorce." 

"The  woman  who  asks  her  husband  to  divorce  her  without  a  cause, 
the  smell  of  Paradise  is  forbidden  her." 

"There  are  three  things  which,  whether  done  in  joke  or  in  earnest, 
shall  be  considered  serious  and  effectual,  namely :  marriage,  divorce,  and 
taking  a  wife  back." 

"Every  divorce  is  lawful  except  a  madman's." 

"Cursed  be  the  second  husband  who  makes  the  wife  (divorced)  law- 
ful for  her  first  husband  for  whom  she  is  made  lawful."  (Mishkat,  xiii : 
cxv.) 

The  talagu'l-hasan.  or  "laudable  divorce,"  is  when  the  husband  repu- 
diates an  enjoyed  wife  by  three  sentences  of  divorce,  either  express  or 
metaphorical,  giving  one  sentence  in  each  tuhr,  or  "period  of  purity." 
Imam  Malik  condemns  this  kind  of  divorce,  and  says  it  is  irregular.-  But 
Abu  Hanifah  holds  it  to  be  hasan,  or  "good." 

The  talagu'l-badi',  or  "irregular  form  of  divorce,"  is  when  the  hus- 
band repudiates  his  wife  by  three  sentences,  either  express  or  metaphori- 
cal, given  them  one  at  a  time :  "Thou  art  divorced !  Thou  art  di- 
vorced !  Thou  art  divorced !"  Or,  "Thou  art  free !  Thou  art  free ! 
Thou  art  free !"  Even  holding  up  three  fingers  or  dropping  three  stones, 
is  held  to  be  a  sufficiently  implied  divorce  to  take  legal  effect.  The  Mos- 
lem who  thus  divorces  his  wife  is  held,  in  the  Hadayah,  to  be  an  offender 
against  the  law,  but  the  divorce,  however  irregular,  takes  legal  effect. 

In  both  these  kinds  of  divorce,  badi'  and  hasan,  the  divorce  is  re- 
vocable after  the  first  and  second  sentences,  but  it  is  irrevocable  after 
the  third  sentence.  After  both  hasan  and  badi'  divorces,  the  divorced 
wife  cannot,  under  any  circumstances,  return  to  her  husband  until  she 
has  been  married,  and  enjoyed  and  divorced  by  another  husband.  Mo- 
hammedan doctors  say  the  law  has  instituted  this  arrangement  in  order 
lo  prevent  divorces  other  than  talagn'l-ahsan. 

A  husband  may  divorce  his  wife  without  any  misbehavoir  on  her 
part,  or  without  assigning  any  cause.  The  divorce  of  every  husband 
is  effective  if  he  be  of  a  sound  understanding  and  of  mature  age;  but 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


379 


that  of  a  boy,  or  lunatic,  or  one  talking  in  his  sleep  is  not  effective. 

If  a  man  pronounce  a  divorce  whilst  in  a  state  of  inebrity  from 
drinking  fermented  liquor,  such  as  wine,  the  divorce  takes  place.  Re- 
pudiation by  any  husband  who  is  sane  and  adult,  is  effective,  whether 
he  be  free  or  a  slave,  willing,  or  acting  under  compulsion ;  and  even 
though  it  were  uttered  in  sport  or  jest,  or  by  a  mere  slip  of  the  tongue, 
instead  of  some  other  word. 

A  sick  man  may  divorce  his  wife,  even  though  he  be  on  his  death- 
bed. 

An  agent  or  agents  may  be  appointed  by  a  husband  to  divorce  his 

wife. 

In  addition  to  the  will  and  caprice  of  the  husband,  there  are  also 
certain  conditions  which  require  a  divorce. 

The  following  are  causes  for  divorce,  but  generally  require  to  be 
ratified  by  a  divorce  from  the  Koran,  or  "judge": 

(1)  Jubb.  That  is,  when  the  husband  has  been  by  any  cause  de- 
prived of  his  organ  of  generation.  This  condition  is  called  majbub.  In 
this  case  the  wife  can  obtain  instant  divorce,  if  the  defect  occurred  be- 
fore marriage.  Cases  of  evident  madness  and  leprosy  are  treated  in  the 
same  way.   Divorce  can  be  obtained  at  once. 

(2)  Unnah,  or  "impotence."  (This  includes  ratg,  "vulva  impervia 
coeunti ;"  and  garn,  "vulva  anteriore  parte  enascens.")  In  cases  of  im- 
potency  in  either  husband  or  wife,  a  year  of  probation  can  be  granted  by 
the  judge. 

(3)  Inequality  of  race  or  tribe.  A  woman  cannot  be  compelled  to 
marry  a  man  who  belongs  to  an  inferior  tribe,  and,  in  case  of  such  a 
marriage,  the  elders  of  the  superior  tribe  can  demand  a  divorce;  but  if 
the  divorce  is  not  demanded,  the  marriage  contract  remains. 

(4)  Insufficient  dower.  If  the  stipulated  dowry  is  not  given  when 
demanded,  divorce  takes  place. 

(5)  Refusal  of  Islam.  If  one  of  the  parties  embrace  Islam,  the 
judge  must  offer  it  to  the  other,  three  distinct  times,  and  if  he  or  she 
refuse  to  embrace  the  faith,  divorce  takes  place. 

(6)  La'n  or  "imprecation."  That  is,  when  a  husband  charges  his 
wife  with  adultery,  the  charge  is  investigated,  but  if  there  is  no  proof, 
and  the  man  swears  his  wife  is  guilty,  and  the  wife  swears  she  is  inno- 
cent, a  divorce  must  be  decreed. 

(7)  Ila,  or  "vow."  When  a  husband  makes  a  vow  not  to  have 
carnal  intercourse  with  his  wife  for  no  less  than  four  months,  and  keeps 
the  vow  inviolate,  an  irreversible  divorce  takes  place. 


380 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


(8)  Reason  of  property.  If  a  husband  become  the  proprietor  of  his 
wife  (a  slave),  or  the  wife  the  proprietor  of  her  husband  (a  slave),  di- 
vorce takes  place. 

(9)  An  invalid  marriage  of  any  kind  arising-  from  incomplete  nikah, 
or  "marriage  ceremony,"  or  from  affinity,  or  from  consanguinity. 

(10)  Difference  of  country.  For  example,  if  a  husband  flee  from  a 
darn'l-harb,  or  "land  of  enmity,"  i.  e.,  "a  non-Moslem  country"  to  a 
darn'l-Islam,  or  "country  of  Islam,"  and  his  wife  refuse  to  perform  hij- 
rah  (flight)  and  to  accompany  him,  she  is  divorced. 

(11)  Apostasy  from  Islam.  The  author  of  Raddu  '1-Makhtar  (vol. 
ii.,  p.  643),  says :  "When  a  man  or  a  woman  apostatises  from  Islam, 
then  an  immediate  dissolution  (faskh)  of  the  marriage  takes  place, 
whether  the  apostasy  be  of  the  man  or  of  the  woman,  without  a  decree 
from  the  Qazi."  And  again  (p.  645) :  "If  both  husband  and  wife  apos- 
tatise at  the  same  time,  their  marriage  bond  remains ;  and  if  at  any 
future  time  the  parties  again  return  to  Islam,  no  re-marriage  is  neces- 
sary to  constitute  them  man  and  wife;  but  if  one  of  the  parties  should 
apostatise  before  the  other,  a  dissolution  of  the  marriage  takes  place 
ipso  facto. 

In  addition  to  the  forms  of  divorce  already  explained,  there  are 
three  others  of  a  peculiar  nature,  called  khula,'  mubura'ah,  and  zihar. 

The  form  of  divorce  known  as  khula'  is  when  a  husband  and  wife 
disagreeing,  or  for  any  other  cause,  the  wife,  on  payment  of  a  compen- 
sation or  ransom  to  her  husband,  is  permitted  by  the  law  to  obtain  from 
him  a  release  from  the  marriage  tie.  The  khula'  is  generally  affected  by 
the  husband  giving  back  the  dower  or  part  thereof.  When  the  aversion 
is  on  the  part  of  the  husband,  it  is  generally  held  that  he  should  grant 
his  wife's  request  without  compensation ;  but  this  is  purely  a  matter  of 
conscience,  and  not  of  law. 

Mubura'ah  is  a  divorce  which  is  effected  by  a  mutual  release. 

Zihar  ,from  zahr,  "back,"  is  a  kind  of  divorce  which  is  effected  by  a 
husband  likening  his  wife  to  any  part  or  member  of  the  body  of  any  of 
his  kinswoman  within  the  prohibited  degree.  As,  for  example,  if  he  were 
to  say  to  his  wife,  "Thou  art  to  me  like  the  back  of  my  mother."  The 
motive  of  the  husband  in  saying  so  must  be  examined  and  if  it  appear 
that  he  meant  divorce,  his  wife  is  not  lawful  to  him  until  he  have  made 
expiation  by  freeing  a  slave,  or  by  fasting  two  months,  or  by  feeding 
sixty  poor  men. 

The  Shi'ah  law  of  Divorce  differs  only  in  a  few  particulars  from 
that  of  the  Sunnis.    According  to  Shi'ah  law,  a  man  must  be  an  adult 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


381 


of  understanding,  of  free  choice  and  will,  and  of  design  and  intention, 
when  he  divorces  his  wife.  A  marked  contrast  to  the  license  and  liberty 
allowed  by  the  Sunni  law.  Nor  can  the  Shi'ah  divorce  be  effected  in  any 
language  of  a  metaphorical  kind.  It  must  be  express  and  be  .pronounced 
in  Arabic  (if  the  husband  understand  that  language),  and  it  must  be 
spoken  and  not  written.  A  divorce  amongst  the  Shi'ahs  does  not  take 
effect  if  given  implicatively  or  ambiguously,  whether  intended  or  not.  It 
is  also  absolutely  necessary  that  the  sentence  should  be  pronounced  by 
the  husband  in  the  presence  of  two  just  persons  as  witnesses,  who  shall 
hear  and  testfy  to  the  wording  of  the  divorce. 

The  idea  of  conjugal  unity  is  utterly  unknown  to  Mohammedans, 
excepting  when  the  Christian  example  is  by  chance  followed ;  and  even 
there,  the  continuance  of  the  bond  is  purely  dependent  on  the  will  of 
the  husband.  *  *  *  I  believe  the  morals  of  Hindu  society,  where 
polygamy  is  less  encouraged,  to  be  sounder,  in  a  very  marked  degree, 
than  that  of  Mohammedan  society. 

WIDOWS  (Arabic  armalah). 

Mourning  is  incumbent  upon  a  widow  for  a  period  of  four  months 
and  ten  days  after  the  death  of  her  husband.  After  this  period  she 
may  lawfully  take  another  husband,  provided  she  be  not  pregnant  of  her 
first  husband.  A  widow's  share  of  her  late  husband's  property  is  one- 
eighth  where  there  is  no  child,  or  a  son's  child,  how  low  soever,  and  a 
fourth  when  there  is  no  child.  Though  a  man  may  have  as  many  as 
four  wives,  the  provision  for  two  or  more  ♦is  the  same  as  that  for  one : 
the  fourth  or  eighth,  as  the  case  may  be,  being  divisible  among  them 
equally. 

If  a  Moslem,  whose  wife  was  once  a  Christian,  should  die,  and  his 
widow  appear  before  a  Qazi  and  declare  that  she  is  Moslem,  and  she 
embraced  the  faith  prior  to  the  death  of  her  husband,  and  the  heirs  assert 
the  contrary,  the  assertion  of  the  heirs  is  to  be  credited  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  rights  of  the  widow.  And  if  a  Christian  die,  and  his  widow  appear 
before  a  Qazi  as  a  Moslem,  and  the  heirs  declare  the  contrary,  the 
assertion  of  the  heirs  is  to  be  credited  to  the  exclusion  of  the  widow. 

RE-MARRIAGE. 

Re-marriage  may  take  place  with  the  divorcer  before  or  after  the 
completion  of  the  'iddah,  provided  only  the  first  or  second  sentence  of 
divorce  has  been  pronounced,  but  it  cannot  take  place  after  a  three-fold 
divorce  until  the  divorced  wife  is  married  to  another  man  and  is  divorced 


382 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


by  him  after  the  second  marriage  has  been  consummated.  This  is  both 
Sunni  and  Shiah  law. 

A  widow  can  marry  again  at  the  expiration  of  four  months  and  ten 
days  after  the  death  of  her  former  husband.  There  is  no  restriction  as 
to  the  period  for  a  widower. 

PARADISE. 

The  Mohammedan  Paradise  is  called  al-Jannah,  "the  garden,"  pi. 
jannat,  in  Arabic ;  and  Bihisht,  in  Persian ;  the  word  al-Fidaus,  or  Para- 
dise, being  restricted  to  one  religion  in  the  celestial  abodes  of  bliss. 
There  are  eight  heavens  or  paradises  mentioned  in  the  Koran,  and  al- 
though they  appear  to  be  but  eight  different  names  for  the  place  of  bliss, 
Mohammedan  divines  have  held  them  to  be  eight  different  stages. 

They  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Jannatu'l-Khuld,  the  Garden  of  Eternity. 

2.  Daru's-Salem,  the  Dwelling  of  Peace. 

3.  Daru'l-Qarar,  the  Dwelling  which  Abideth. 

4.  Jannatu'l-'Adn,  the  Gardens  of  Eden. 

5.  Jannatu'l-Ma'ma,  the  Gardens  of  Refuge. 

6.  Jannatu'n-Na'im,  the  Gardens  of  Delight. 

7.  Illiyun  (Suratu't-Tatfif,  Lxxxiii:i8). 

8.  Jannatu'l-Firdaus,  the  Gardens  of  Paradise. 

(These  eight  stages  are  spoken  of  as  eight  doors  in  the  Mishkat, 
book  II,  ch.  I.) 

The  sensual  delights  of  Mohammed's  Paradise  are  proverbial,  and 
he  must  have  exercised  a  considerable  influence  upon  the  minds  of  the 
people  to  whom  he  made  known  his  mission.  There  are  frequent  illu- 
sions to  them  in  the  Koran.   The  following  are  specimen  passages : 

Suratu'l-Isan  (lxxvi),  12-22:  "God  hath  rewarded  their  constancy 
with  Paradise,  and  silken  robes,  reclining  therein  on  bridal  couches ; 
naught  shall  they  know  of  sun  or  piercing  cold ;  its  shades  shall  close 
over  them,  and  low  shall  its  fruits  hang  down ;  and  vessels  of  silver  and 
goblets  like  flagons  shall  be  borne  round  among  them ;  flagons  of  silver 
whose  measure  themselves  shall  mete.  And  there  shall  they  be  given 
to  drink  of  the  cup  tempered  with  zanjabil  (ginger)  from  the  fount 
therein  whose  name  is  Salsabil  (i.  e.,  the  softly  flowing).  Blooming 
youths  go  round  among  them.  When  thou  lookest  at  them,  thou 
wouldst  deem  them  scattered  pearls ;  and  when  thou  seest  this,  thou  wilt 
see  delights  and  a  vast  kingdom ;  their  clothing  green  silk  robes  and  rich 
brocade,  with  silver  bracelets  shall  they  be  adorned;  and  drink  of  a  pure 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


383 


beverage  shall  their  Lord  give  them.    This  shall  be  your  recompense." 

Suratu'l-Wagi'ah  (lvi),  12-39:  "In  gardens  of  delight,  a  crowd  of 
the  former  and  a  few  of  the  later  generations ;  on  inwrought  couches  re- 
clining on  them  face  to  face,  blooming  youths  go  round  about  them  with 
goblets  and  ewers  and  a  cup  of  flowing  wine ;  their  brows  ache  not  from 
it,  nor  fails  the  sense;  and  with  such  fruits  as  shall  please  them  best, 
and  with  flesh  of  such  birds  as  they  shall  long  for ;  and  theirs  shall  be  the 
Houris  (Arabic  hur),  with  large  dark  eyes,  like  pearls  hidden  in  their 
shells,  in  recompense  for  their  labors  past.  No  vain  discourse  shall 
they  hear  therein,  nor  charge  of  sin,  but  one  cry,  'Peace !  Peace !'  *  *  * 
Unfailing,  unforbidden,  and  on  lofty  couches  and  of  a  rare  creation  have 
we  made  the  Houris,  and  we  have  made  them  ever  virgins,  dear  to  their 
spouses  and  of  equal  age,  for  the  people  of  the  right  hand,  a  crowd  of 
the  former,  and  a  crowd  of  the  later  generations." 

Saruta  'r-Rahman  (lv.),  54-56:  "On  couches  with  linings  of  brocade 
shall  they  recline,  and  the  fruit  of  the  two  gardens  shall  be  within  their 
easy  reach.  Therein  shall  be  the  damsels  with  retiring  glances,  whom 
neither  man  nor  jiim  hath  touched  before  them." 

Suratu'l-Mohammed  (xlvii.),  16,17:  "Therein  are  rivers  of  water 
which  corrupt  not :  rivers  of  milk  whose  taste  changeth  not :  and  rivers 
of  wine,  delicious  to  those  who  quaff  it ;  and  rivers  of  clarified  honey : 
and  therein  are  all  kinds  of  fruit  for  them  from  their  Lord." 

The  descriptions  of  the  celestial  regions  and  the  enjoyments  prom- 
ised to  the  faithful  are  still  more  minutely  given  in  the  traditional  sayings 
of  the  Prophet.    (See  the  Mishkat,  book  xxiii,  ch.  xiii.) 

Abu  Musa  relates  that  "the  Apostle  of  God  said,  'Verily,  there  is  a 
tent  for  every  Moslem  in  Paradise;  it  is  made  of  one  pearl,  its  interior 
empty,  its  breadth  60  kos,  and  in  every  corner  of  it  will  be  his  wives; 
and  they  shall  not  see  one  another.  The  Moslem  shall  love  them  alter- 
nately," etc. 

Abu  Sa'id  relates  that  "the  Apostle  of  God  said,  'He  who  is  least 
amongst  the  people  of  Paradise,  shall  have  eighty  thousand  slaves,  and 
seventy-two  women,  and  have  a  tent  pitched  for  him  of  pearls,  rubies 
and  emeralds.  *  *  *  Those  who  die  in  the  world,  young  or  old,  are 
made  of  thirty  years  of  age,  and  not  more,  when  they  enter  Paradise.'  " 

Abu  Sa'id  also  relates  that  "the  Apostle  of  God  said,  'Verily,  a  man 
in  Paradise  reclines  upon  seventy  cushions,  before  he  turns  on  his  other 
side.  Then  a  woman  of  Paradise  comes  to  him  and  pats  him  on  the 
shoulder,  and  the  man  sees  his  face  in  her  cheek,  which  is  brighter  than 
a  looking-glass,  and  verily  her  most  inferior  pearl  brightens  the  east  and 


384 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


west.  Then  the  woman  makes  a  salam  to  him,  which  he  returns ;  and 
the  man  says,  "Who  are  you?"  and  she  replies,  "I  am  of  the  number 
promised  of  God  for  the  virtuous."  And  verily  she  will  have  seventy 
garments,  and  the  man's  eyes  will  be  fixed  on  them,  till  he  will  see  the 
marrow  of  the  bones  of  her  legs  through  the  calves  of  them,  and  she 
will  have  crowns  on  her  head,  the  meanest  pearl  of  which  would  give 
light  between  the  east  and  west.'  " 

One  of  the  attractions  of  Paradise  is  the  river  Kausar.  Accord- 
ing to  Anas,  "The  Apostle  of  God  said,  it  is  a  river  which  God  has 
given  me  in  Paradise,  its  water  is  whiter  than  milk,  and  sweeter  than 
honey  ,and  on  its  waters  are  birds  whose  necks  are  like  the  necks  of 
camels." 

The  following  is  an  instance  of  the  way  in  which  the  Prophet  en- 
deavored to  suit  his  paradise  to  the  taste  of  the  people : — 

Abu  Aiyub  says,  "An  Arab  came  to  the  Phophet  and  said,  'O 
Apostle  of  God !  I  am  fond  of  horses,  are  there  any  in  paradise  ?'  The 
Prophet  replied,  Tf  you  are  taken  into  Paradise",  you  will  get  a  ruby 
horse,  with  two  wings,  and  you  will  mount  him,  and  he  will  carry  you 
wherever  you  wish.'  " 

Abu  Harairah  said,  "Verily  the  Apostle  of  God  said,  when  an  Arab 
was  sitting  near  him,  that  a  man  of  the  people  of  Paradise  will  ask 
permission  of  his  Lord  to  cultivate  land,  and  God  will  say,  'Have  you  not 
everything  you  could  wish  for?  What  will  you  cultivate?'  The  man 
will  say,  'Yes,  everything  is  present,  but  I  am  fond  of  cultivating.'  Then 
he  will  be  permitted  to  cultivate,  and  he  will  sow,  and,  quicker  than  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye,  it  will  grow,  become  ripe,  and  be  reaped,  and  it 
will  stand  in  sheaves  like  mountains." 

The  apologists  for  Islam,  Carlyle  for  example,  have  suggested  that 
the  sensual  delights  of  Mohammed's  paradise  may,  after  all,  be  taken  in  a 
figurative  sense,  as  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  or  the  Song  of  Solomon. 
It  is  quite  true  that  such  an  interpretation  is  hinted  at  in  the  Akhlag-i- 
Jalali  (Thompson's  translation,  p.  102),  and  Mr.  Lane  in  his  Egyptians 
(Vol.  i.  p.  84),  says  that  a  Moslem  of  some  learning  considered  the 
descriptions  of  Paradise  figurative,  but  such  is  not  the  view  held  by 
Mohammedan  doctors,  whether  Sunni,  Sh'ah,  or  Wahhabi.  They  are 
all  agreed  as  to  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  sensual  enjoyments  of  the 
Moslem  Paradise,  and  very  many  are  the  books  written  giving  minute 
particulars  of  the  joys  in  store  for  the  faithful. 

Islam,  true  to  its  anti-Christian  character,  preaches  a  sensual  abode 
of  bliss,  in  opposition  to  the  express  teaching  of  our  Lord  in  Matt. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


385 


xxii.  30 :  'They  neither  marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage,  but  are  as  the 
angels  of  God  in  heaven." 

Were  proof  needed  to  show  that  the  Prophet  taught  a  real  and  literal 
interpretation  of  the  sensual  delights  of  the  abodes  of  bliss,  a  tradition 
of  high  authority  is  found  in  the  Sahihu  Moslem  (p.  379,  vide  also 
Miahkat,  book  xxiii.  ch.  13),  in  which  the  Prophet  goes  to  some  trouble 
to  explain  the  sanitary  laws  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,  in  the  most  literal 
manner  possible. 

Sir  William  Muir  says :  "It  is  remarkable  that  the  notices  in  the 
Koran  of  this  voluptuous  Paradise  are  almost  entirely  confined  to  a  time 
when,  whatever  the  tendency  of  his  desires,  Mohammed  was  living 
chaste  and  temperate  with  a  single  wife  of  three  score  years  of  age.  Gib- 
bon characteristically  observes  that  Mohammed  has  not  specified  the 
male  companions  of  the  female  elect,  lest  he  should  either  alarm  the 
jealousy  of  the  former  husbands,  or  disturb  their  felicity  by  the  suspicion 
of  an  everlasting  marriage.  The  remark  made  in  raillery,  is  pregnant 
with  reason,  and  aims  a  fatal  blow  at  the  Paradise  of  Islam.  Faithful 
women  will  renew  their  youth  in  heaven  as  well  as  faithful  men:  why 
should  not  their  good  works  merit  an  equal  and  analogous  reward? 
But  Mohammed  shrank  from  this  legitimate  conclusion.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  in  the  Medina  Suras — that  is  in  all  the  voluminous  revela- 
tions of  the  ten  years  following  the  Hegira — women  are  only  twice  re- 
ferred to  as  one  of  the  delights  of  Paradise;  and  on  both  occasions  in 
these  simple  words : — 'and  to  them  (believers)  there  shall  be  therein  pure 
wives.' 

"Garden  of  Eden — into  which  they  shall  enter  together  with  the 
just  of  their  fathers,  and  their  wives  and  their  descendants,  and  the 
angels  shall  go  in  unto  them  at  every  portal :  Peace  be  with  you,  say  they, 
because  ye  have  endured  all  things  *  *  *  The  rivers  flow  beneath 
its  bowers ;  its  food  and  its  shades  are  perpetual." 

HUSBAND  (Arabic  zauj). 

A  husband  is  not  guardian  over  his  wife  any  further  than  respects 
the  rights  of  marriage,  nor  does  the  provision  for  her  rest  upon  him 
any  further  than  with  respect  to  food,  clothing  and  lodging,  but  he 
may  be  imprisoned  for  the  maintenance  of  his  wife.  The  evidence  of  a 
husband  concerning  his  wife  is  not  accepted  by  the  Sunnis,  but  it  is  al- 
lowed in  Sh'ah  law.  The  Mohammedan  law  demands  that  a  Moslem 
husband  shall  reside  equally  with  each  of  his  wives,  unless  one  wife 
bestow  her  right  upon  another  wife. 


:(86 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


PRIESTHOOD. 

Men  who  expound  and  administer  the  Shahr  are  either  Mushtaheds 
or  Mollahs.  The  chief  Mushtahed  must  have  taken  a  course  with  the 
great  Mushtahed  of  Kerbellah,  near  Bagdad,  who  dwells  ever  at  the 
tomb  of  Ali.  The  highest  Mushtahed  in  Persia,  the  chief  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  as  it  were,  is  at  present  Hagdi  Mollah  Ali.  When  he 
goes  abroad  he  is  mounted  on  a  white  mule  and  followed  by  one  single 
attendant,  but  the  multitude  disperses  before  him  as  if  he  were  a  super- 
natural being.  A  word  from  him  would  hurl  the  Shah  from  his  throne, 
or  doom  all  Christians  and  foreigners  in  the  country.  In  his  presence 
even  the  Shah  stands. 

The  Mushtaheds  are  graded  into  four  degrees,  the  fourth  being 
the  lowest  grade  and  numerically  the  strongest.  Their  means  of  exis- 
tence consists  in  drawing  up  legal  documents,  performing  marriage 
ceremonies  and  accepting  presents.  For  the  marriage  of  a  couple  they 
charge  a  large  fee.  Common  people  consider  it  a  great  privilege  to 
give  a  present  to  a  Mushtahed,  and  a  favor  on  his  part  if  he  accepts  it. 
These  men,  in  consequence,  are  generally  very  rich  and  own  one  or  more 
beautiful  palaces.  Rich  ladies  feel  highly  honored  to  be  chosen  as  the 
wife  of  a  Mushtahed. 

A  Mollah's  duty  is  to  visit  the  sick,  call  on  families  and  teach 
them  prayers  and  make  them  familiar  with  the  traditions,  and  conduct 
funeral  ceremonies.  Some  also  teach  the  boys,  who  go  to  them  daily 
for  instruction.  Their  meals  are  furnished  by  the  pupils,  each  bringing 
something  to  eat  for  the  Mollah  (usually  choice  morsels)  every  morning. 
Besides  this  each  pupil  pays  one  dime  tuition  a  month.  In  autumn 
the  Mollah  is  provided  for  the  winter  by  his  parishioners,  who  bring 
him  a  collection  of  grapes,  apples,  wheat,  fuel,  etc.  He  is  highly 
respected  among  the  community  and  is  always  invited  by  some  family 
on  holidays.  He  also  draws  up  legal  documents  and  letters  for  the 
people  and  receives  as  a  remuneration  from  two  to  ten  cents  ;  but  he  is 
quite  often  paid  in  the  form  of  two  or  three  eggs,  a  basket  of  fruit,  and 
the  like.  This  is  the  poor  Mollah's  only  income.  Some  have  charge 
and  do  secular  work  for  a  living,  others  recite  Koran  on  the  sepulchre 
of  a  lord,  for  which  they  are  rewarded  by  the  relatives  of  the  deceased. 
I  have  seen  a,  Mollah  who  recited  Koran  for  fifteen  years  at  the  tomb 
of  a  noted  army  officer. 

There  is  yet  another  class  of  priests,  more  learned  and  more  devout 
than  the  rest,  who  act  as  revivalists.  On  holidays,  which  occur  quite 
frequently,  the  mosques  are  usually  crowded  with  worshipers.  Then 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


387 


one  of  the  priests  will  mount  an  elevated  pulpit  very  ostensibly,  and  in 
an  impressive  tone  begin  to  read  or  repeat  Koran.  He  will  chant 
traditions  on  the  lives  and  deeds  of  the  prophets  and  martyrs,  and  relate 
pathetic  stories  of  the  noble  sacrifice  of  departed  heroes  of  faith.  His 
charming  tones  and  imploring  utterances  have  much  effect  an  his 
audience  and  men  and  women  weep  and  strike  against  their  bosoms. 

Persia  acknowledges  Ali  as  the  Caliph  after  Mohammed.  The 
descendants  of  Ali  are  therefore  held  in  high  esteem  and  rank  among 
the  noblest  families  in  Persia.  They  are  called  Say-yids  (prophets  or 
masters)  and  enjoy  privileges  denied  other  men.  They  are  very  zealous 
in  perpetuating  their  own  caste.  From  Ali's  time  they  have  kept  a 
careful  record  of  their  geneaolgy.  This  family  record,  called  Sajjara,  is 
handed  down  from  father  to  son  and  serves  as  a  credential  to  the 
Say-yid  tribe.  Each  family  must  possess  a  credential  of  this  kind,  at 
least  200  years  old.  Should  it  be  worn  by  age  and  use,  the  heads  of 
families  may  draft  copies  and  duly  certify  to  them.  The  Say-yid  may 
be  easily  distinguished  by  his  garments.  He  wears  a  green  turban  and 
girdle.  Should  a  common  man  assume  to  wear  such  he  would  be 
severely  punished.  The  Say-yid's  turban  is  to  him  more  precious  than 
a  king's  crown ;  it  is  the  emblem  of  his  glory — 'the  girdle  a  symbol  of 
strength.  Their  rank  is  higher  than  any  other  in  the  country,  and 
their  high-priest  is  more  honored  than  a  prince.  So  the  Say-yid  rules 
over  other  men.  He  demands  and  receives  their  homage.  In  the 
assemblies  of  lords  and  influential  men  the  Say-yid  occupies  a  foremost 
seat  and  is  always  served  first.  Solemn  oaths  are  delivered  by  their 
heads ;  all  men  fear  them,  believing  that  their  curse  will  surely  come 
to  pass.   They  are  never  smitten  or  reviled. 

If  ever  a  Christian  should  raise  a  hand  against  a  Say-yid,  that 
hand  must  certainly  be  severed  from  his  body.  Say-yids  are  exempt 
from  all  legal  punishment.  Governors  cannot  impose  fines  or  imprison- 
ment on  them.  Should  a  Say-yid  kill  a  common  person,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  have  him  in  turn  suffer  a  death  penalty,  for  this  would  be 
a  sin  against  God — for  it  is  universally  believed  that  God  created  all 
other  men  for  the  sake  of  Mohammed  and  his  descendants ;  hence  a 
Say-yid's  punishment  must  come  through  the  leader  of  that  order. 
Many  promises  and  vows  are  made  to  them.  Parents  having  a  sick 
daughter  will  vow  to  marry  her  to  a  Say-yid,  should  she  recover,  be- 
lieving that  God  will  take  the  disease  away  in  the  Say-yid's  behalf. 

The  Say-yids  generally  ride  gray  horses,  and  claim  that  all  horses 
of  that  particular  color  belong  to  them.    They  conduct  the  large  cara- 


388 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


vans,  which  start  out  annually  to  worship  the  tomb  of  Ali.  Their 
presence  is  supposed  to  protect  the  caravans  from  thieves  and  robbers. 
By  virtue  of  the  law,  one-tenth  of  all  property  is  addicted  to  them. 
The  majority  of  them  do  not  work,  but  live  well  on  the  merits  of  their 
position  as  Say-yids,  or  holy  men.  The  more  noble  among  them  will 
sit  in  their  houses  and  receive  tithes  of  fruit,  coffee,  tea  and  money,  of 
the  surrounding  people.  When  these  are  not  willingly  given,  a  servant 
will  be  sent  with  authority  to  demand  and  take  them.  The  less  noble 
Say-yid  will  go  in  person  to  the  houses,  vineyards  and  gardens,  and 
gather  his  portion. 

FAGIR  (Persian  Darwesh). 

The  Arabic  word  fagir  signifies  "poor;"  but  it  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  being  in  need  of  mercy,  and  poor  in  the  sight  of  God,  rather  than 
in  need  of  worldly  assistance.  Darwesh  is  a  Persian  word,  derived  from 
dar,  "  a  door,"  i.  e.,  those  who  beg  from  door  to  door.  The  terms  are 
generally  used  for  those  who  lead  a  religious  life.  Religious  fagirs  are 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  the  ba  shar  (with  the  law),  or  those  who 
govern  their  conduct  according  to  the  principles  of  Islam,  and  the 
be  shar  (with  the  law),  or  those  who  do  not  rule  their  lives  according 
to  the  principles  of  any  religious  creed,  although  they  call  themselves 
Musselmans.  The  former  are  called  salik,  or  travelers  on  the  pathway 
to  heaven,  and  the  latter  are  either  azad  (free),  or  majzub  (abstracted). 
The  salik  embrace  the  various  religious  orders  who  perform  the  zikrs 
described  in  the  article  zikr. 

The  Majzub  fagirs  are  totally  absorbed  in  religious  reverie.  The 
Azad  shave  their  beards,  whiskers,  moustaches,  eye-brows,  and  eye- 
lashes, and  lead  lives  of  celibacy. 

The  Azad  and  Majzub  fagirs  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  Moham- 
medans, as  they  do  not  say  the  regular  prayers  or  observe  the  ordinances 
of  Islam,  so  that  a  description  of  their  various  sects  does  not  fall  within 
the  limits  of  this  work.  The  Salik  fagirs  are  divided  into  very  numerous 
orders,  but  their  chief  difference  consists  in  their  silsilah,  or  drain  of 
succession,  from  their  great  teachers,  the  Khalifahs  Abu  Bakr  and  Ali, 
who  are  said  to  have  been  the  founders  of  religious  orders  of  fagirs. 

It  is  impossible  to  become  acquainted  with  all  the  rules  and  cere- 
monies of  the  numerous  orders  of  fagirs,  for,-  like  those  of  the  Free- 
masons and  other  secret  societies,  they  are  not  divulged  to  the 
uninitiated. 

The  doctrines  of  the  darwesh  orders  are  those  of  the  Sufi  mystics, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


389 


and  their  religious  ceremonies  consist  of  exercises  called  zikrs,  or 
"recitals."  In  the  first  year  of  Hijirah,  forty-five  citizens  of  Makkuh 
joined  themselves  to  as  many  others  of  al-Madinah.  They  took  an  oath 
of  fidelity  to  the  doctrines  of  their  prophet,  and  formed  a  sect  of 
fraternity,  the  object  of  which  was  to  establish  among  themselves  a 
community  of  property,  and  to  perform  every  day  certain  religious 
practices  in  a  spirit  of  penitence  and  mortification.  To  distinguish 
themselves  from  other  Mohammedans,  they  took  the  name  of  Sufis. 
This  name,  which  later  was  attributed  to  the  most  zealous  partisans 
of  Islam,  is  the  same  still  in  use  to  indicate  any  Musselman  who  retires 
from  the  world  to  study,  to  lead  a  life  of  pious  contemplation,  and  to 
follow  the  most  painful  exercises  of  an  exaggerated  devotion.  To  the 
name  of  Sufi  they  added  also  that  of  fagir,  because  their  maxim  was  to 
renounce  the  goods  of  the  earth,  and  to  live  in  an  entire  abnegation  of 
all  worldy  enjoyments,  following  thereby  the  words  of  the  prophet, 
al-fagru  fakhri,  or  'Poverty  is  my  pride.'  Following  their  example 
Abu  Bakr  and  Ali  established,  even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  prophet 
and  under  his  own  eyes,  religious  orders,  over  which  each  presided, 
with  Zikrs,  or  peculiar  religious  exercises,  established  by  them  separately 
and  a  vow  taken  by  each  of  the  voluntary  disciples  forming  them.  On 
his  decease,  Abu  Bakr  made  over  his  office  of  president  to  one 
Sabmann'l-Farisi,  and  Ali  to  al-Hasann'l-Basri,  and  each  of  those 
charges  were  consecrated  under  the  title  Khalifah  successor.  The 
two  first  successors  followed  the  example  of  the  Khalifahs  of  Islam, 
and  transmitted  it  to  their  successors,  and  these  in  turn  to  others,  the 
most  aged  venerable  of  their  fraternity.  Some  among  them,  led  by  the 
delirium  of  the  imagination,  wandered  away  from  the  primitive  rules 
of  their  society,  and  converted,  from  time  to  time,  these  fraternities  into 
a  multitude  of  religious  orders. 

They  were  doubtlessly  emboldened  in  this  enterprise  by  that  of  a 
recluse  who,  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  the  Hijirah  (A.  D.  652)  formed 
the  first  order  of  anchorets  of  the  greatest  austerity,  named  Urvais 
ul-Karani,  a  native  of  Karu  in  Yemen,  who  one  day  announced  that 
the  archangel  Gabriel  had  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream,  and  in  the  name 
of  the  eternal  God  commanded  him  to  withdraw  from  the  world,  and 
to  give  himself  up  to  a  life  of  contemplation  and  penitence.  This 
visionary  pretended  also  to  have  received  from  that  heavenly  visitor  the 
plan  of  his  future  conduct,  and  the  rules  of  his  institution.  These  con- 
sisted in  a  continual  abstinence,  in  retirement  from  society,  in  an 
abandonment  of  the  pleasures  of  innocent  nature,  and  in  the  recital  of 


390 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN 


an  infinity  of  prayers  day  and  night.  Urvais  even  added  to  these 
practices.  He  went  so  far  as  to  draw  out  his  teeth,  in  honor,  it  is  said, 
of  the  prophet,  who  had  lost  two  of  his  own  in  the  celebrated  battle  of 
Uhud.  He  required  his  disciples  to  make  the  same  sacrifice.  He  pre- 
tended that  all  those  who  would  be  especially  favored  by  heaven,  and 
really  called  to  the  exercises  of  his  order,  should  lose  their  teeth  in  a 
supernatural  manner;  that  an  angel  should  draw  out  their  teeth  whilst 
in  the  midst  of  a  deep  sleep,  and  that  on  awakening  they  should  find 
them  by  their  bedside.  The  experience  of  such  a  vocation  were  doubt- 
less too  severe  to  attract  many  proselytes  to  the  order ;  it  only  enjoyed 
a  certain  degree  of  attraction  for  fanatics  and  credulously  ignorant 
people  during  the  first  days  of  Islam.  Since  then  it  has  remained  in 
Yemen,  where  it  originated,  and  where  its  partisans  were  always  but 
few  in  number. 

It  was  about  A.  H.  49  (A.  D.  766),  that  the  Shaikh  Alwan,  a  mystic, 
renowned  for  his  religious  fervor,  founded  the  first  regular  order  of 
fagirs,  now  known  as  the  Alwaniyah,  with  its  special  rules  and  religious 
exercises,  although  similar  associations  of  men  without  strict  rules  had 
existed  from  the  days  of  Abu  Bakr,  the  first  Khalifah.  And  although 
there  is  the  formal  declaration  of  Mohammed,  "Let  there  be  no  monos- 
ticism  in  Islam,"  still  the  inclinations  of  Eastern  races  to  a  solitary  and 
a  contemplative  life,  carried  it  even  against  the  positive  oppostion  of 
orthodox  Islam,  and  now  there  is  scarcely  a  maulawi  or  learned  man  of 
reputation  in  Islam  who  is  not  a  member  of  some  religious  order. 

Each  century  gave  birth  to  new  orders,  named  after  their  respective 
founders,  but  in  the  present  day  there  is  no  means  of  ascertaining  the 
actual  number  of  these  associations  of  mystic  Moslems. 

The  "dancing,"  or  "whirling"  darweshes.  They  were  founded  by 
the  Maulawi  Jalalu'd-dinar-Rumi,  the  renowned  author  of  the  Masnawi, 
a  book  much  read  in  Persia,  and,  indeed,  in  all  parts  of  Islam.  They 
have  service  at  their  takyah,  or  "convent,"  every  Wednesday  and  Sun- 
day at  2  o'clock.  There  are  about  twenty  performers,  with  high  round 
felt  caps  and  brown  mantles.  At  a  given  signal  they  all  fall  flat  on  their 
faces,  and  rise  and  walk  slowly  round  and  round,  with  their  arms 
folded,  bowing  and  turning  slowly  several  times.  Then  they  cast  off  their 
mantles  and  appear  in  long  bell-shaped  petticoats  and  jackets  and 
then  begin  to  spin,  revolving,  dancing  and  turning  with  extraordinary 
velocity. 

The  Shiahs  generally  become  fagirs  of  this  order.   They  are  partial 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


391 


to  vocal  music,  for  the  founder  of  the  order  remarked  that  singing  was 
the  food  and  support  of  the  soul. 

The  more  zealous  fagirs  devote  themselves  to  the  most  austere 
acts,  and  shut  themselves  up  in  their  cells,  so  as  to  give  themselves  up 
for  whole  hours  to  prayer  and  meditation;  the  others  pass  very  often 
a  whole  night  in  pronouncing  the  words  Hir  and  Allah.,  or  rather  the 
phrase,  La  ilaha  ilia  'llah.  So  as  to  drive  away  sleep  from  their  eyes, 
some  of  them  stand  for  whole  nights  in  very  uncomfortable  positions. 
They  sit  with  their  feet  on  the  ground,  the  two  hands  resting  upon  their 
knees.  They  fasten  themselves  in  this  attitude  by  a  band  of  leather 
passed  over  their  neck  and  legs.  Others  tie  their  hair  with  a  cord  to 
the  ceiling,  and  call  this  usage  Chilleh.  There  are  some  also  who  devote 
themselves  to  an  absolute  retirement  from  the  world,  and  to  the  most 


DANCING  DEKVISHES. 

rigid  abstinence,  living  only  on  bread  and  water  for  twelve  days  suc- 
cessively, in  honor  of  the  twelve  Imams  of  the  race  of  Ali.  This 
retirement  is  called  Khalwah.  They  pretend  that  the  Shaikh  'Amr 
Khalwati  was  the  first  to  follow  it,  and  that  he  often  practiced  it.  They 
add  that  one  day,  having  left  his  retirement,  he  heard  a  celestial  voice 
saying,  "O  'Amr  Khalwati,  why  dost  thou  abandon  us?"  and  that  faith- 
ful to  this  oracle,  he  felt  himself  obliged  to  consecrate  the  rest  of  his 
days  to  works  of  penitence,  and  even  to  institute  an  order  under  the 
name  of  Khalwatis,  a  name  signifying  "living  in  retirement."  For 
this  reason,  darweshes  of  this  order  consider  it  their  duty,  more  than 
any  others,  to  live  in  solitude  and  abstinence.  The  more  devoted  among 
them  observe  sometimes  a  painful  fast  of  forty  days  consecutively,  called 


392 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


by  them  al-arb-aun  (forty).  Amongst  them  all  their  object  is  the  ex- 
piation of  their  sins,  the  sanctification  of  their  lives,  and  the  glorification 
of  Islam ;  the  prosperity  of  the  State,  and  the  general  salvation  of  the 
Mohammedan  people.  The  most  ancient  and  the  greatest  of  the  orders, 
such  as  the  Alwanis,  the  Adhamis,  the  Qadiris,  the  Rufa'is,  the  Nag- 
shbandis,  the  Khalwatis,  etc.,  are  considered  as  the  cardinal  orders ; 
for  which  reason  they  call  themselves  the  Usuls,  or  "Originals."  They 
give  to  the  others  names  of  the  Furu',  or  "Branches,"  signifying  thereby 
secondary  ones,  to  designate  their  filiation  or  emanation  from  the  first. 
The  order  of  the  Nagshbandis  and  Khalwatis  hold,  however,  the  first 
rank  in  the  temporal  line;  the  one  on  account  of  the  conformity  of  its 
statutes  to  the  principles  of  the  ten  first  confraternities,  and  to  the  luster 
which  causes  the  grandees  and  principal  citizens  of  the  empire  to  incor- 
porate themselves  in  it ;  and  the  other,  because  of  its  being  the  source 
of  the  mother  society  which  gave  birth  to  many  Others.  In  the  spiritual 
line,  the  order  of  the  Qadiris,  Maulawis,  Bakhtashis,  Rufa'is  and  the 
Sa'dis,  are  the  most  distinguished,  especially  the  three  first,  on  account 
of  the.  eminent  sanctity  of  their  founders,  of  the  multitude  of  the  miracles 
attributed  to  them,  and  of  the  superabundance  of  the  merit  which  is 
deemed  especially  attached  to  them. 

Although  all  of  them  are  considered  as  mendicant  orders,  no  dar- 
wesh  is  allowed  to  beg,  especially  in  public.  The  only  exception  is 
among  the  Bakhtashis,  who  deem  it  meritorious  to  live  by  alms;  and 
many  of  these  visit  not  only  private  houses,  but  even  the  streets,  public 
squares,  bureaux  and  public  houses,  for  the  purpose  of  recommending 
themselves  to  the  charity  of  their  brethren. 

They  only  express  their  request  by  the  words  "Shayid  Ullah,"  a 
corruption  from  "Shayim  li-'llah,"  which  means,  "Something  for  the 
love  of  God."  Many  of  these  make  it  a  rule  to  live  only  by  the  labor 
of  their  hands  in  imitation  of  Haji  Bakhtash,  their  founder,  and,  like 
him,  they  make  spoons,  ladles,  graters,  and  other  utensils,  of  wood  or 
marble.  It  is  these,  also,  who  fashion  the  pieces  of  marble,  white  or 
veined,  which  are  used  as  collars  or  buckles  for  the  belts  of  all  the  dar- 
weshes  of  their  order,  and  the  kashkuls,  or  shell  cups,  in  which  they 
are  obliged  to  ask  alms. 

Although  in  no  wise  bound  by  any  oaths,  all  being  free  to  change 
their  community,  and  even  to  return  to  the  world,  and  there  to  adopt 
any  occupation  which  may  please  their  fancy,  it  is  rarely  that  anyone 
makes  use  of  this  liberty.  Each  one  regards  it  as  a  sacred  duty  to  end 
his  days  in  the  dress  of  his  order.    To  this  spirit  of  poverty  and  per- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


393 


severance.,  in  which  they  are  so  exemplary,  must  be  added  that  of  perfect 
submission  to  their  superior.  This  latter  is  elevated  by  the  deep  humility 
which  accompanies  all  their  conduct,  not  only  in  the  interior  of  the 
cloisters,  but  even  in  private  life.  One  never  meets  them  anywhere 
but  with  head  bent  and  the  most  respectful  countenance.  They  never 
salute  anyone,  particularly  the  Maulawis,  and  the  Bakhtashis,  except 
by  the  exclamation,  "Ya  Hu !"  The  words  Ai-bi-'llah,  "thanks  to  God," 
frequently  are  used  in  their  conversation ;  and  the  more  devout  or  en- 
thusiastic speak  only  of  dreams,  visions,  celestial  spirits,  supernatural 
objects. 

The  order  of  the  Dervishes  is  one  of  the  holiest  orders  among  the 
Moslems.  They  are  men  who  have  voluntarily  consecrated  their  lives  to 
Allah  and  his  Prophet.  Parents,  in  many  cases,  dedicate  their  sons  to 
the  order.  Quite  often,  childless  women  will  vow  to  Allah  to  consecrate 
a  son  he  will  graciously  give,  back  to  him,  by  having  him  enter  into  the 
order  of  Dervishes.  This  order  numbers  members  from  all  classes  of 
society,  high  and  low,  wealthy  and  indigent,  even  from  the  royal  fam- 
ily. 

A  Dervish  is  expected  to  be  and  commonly  is  humble,  kind  and 
liberal,  ready  to  do  anyone  a  service.  He  suffers  all  sorts  of  hardships, 
self-imposed,  and  leads  a  very  humble  life,  for  this  to  him  is  holiness. 
He  is  required  to  be  well  informed  in  all  religious  stories,  traditions, 
and  the  Koran,  and  particularly  in  the  poetical  writings  of  the  Maw-le- 
\vi  order  (which  is  their  own  order),  founded  by  Au-wa-ri,  the  father 
of  the  Dervishes.  Some  of  the  members  know  from  one  to  five  thou- 
sand of  these  sacred  poems.  The  majority  are  sufficiently  well  edu- 
cated to  read,  and  in  general  they  are  the  most  faithful,  honest  and  pure 
followers  of  Mohammed.  Some  are  very  intelligent  and  well  educated 
and  perfectly  familiar  with  all  their  religious  rites  and  rituals.  On  the 
other  hand  they  are  exceedingly  superstitious,  fanatical  and  ambitious 
to  propagate  their  religion,  believing  it  to  be  a  true  religion.  Their 
main  occupation  is  to  sit  in  the  streets  during  the  week  days  and  tell 
stories,  tales  and  traditions.  Their  poems  glorify  Mohammed  and  AH, 
God's  supremest  creatures.  One  of  these  poems  runs  in  this  strain: 
"The  first  of  all  creatures  is  Ali ;  the  supreme  of  beings  is  Ali ;  the  true 
Caliph  of  the  Prophet  is  Ali ;  the  Lord  of  all  the  world  is  Ali ;  the  Lord 
of  my  soul  is  Ali." 

The  Dervishes  wear  long  hair  and  a  pointed,  orange-shaped  cap, 
a  cloak  of  patch  work  and  a  long  white  robe.  In  their  right  hand  they 
carry  a  tomahawk  or  hatchet  with  a  fancy  handle ;  on  the  blade  are  some 


394 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


inscriptions  consisting-  of  passages  from  the  Koran,  or  poems.  In  the 
left  hand  they  hold  a  kashkul  or  receptacle  for  money  donated  them; 
A  dozen  or  more  may  be  seen  on  every  street  not  far  distant  from  each 
other,  standing  in  front  of  stores  singing  some  poems  for  the  praise  of 
Ali  in  a  loud  voice,  and  with  an  earnest  and  enthusiastic  spirit.  Then 
he  will  pass  his  kashkul  and  the  shopkeeper  will  drop  into  it  some  small 
coin  or  only  a  bit  of  sugar  or  ginger.  Any  gift  is  acceptable.  Some- 
times they  are  called  Kalander,  which  means  humble  and  holy  men 
of  Allah.  They  are  exempted  from  tax  and  from  military  service.  Many 
presents  are  given  them  by  the  people.  The  salutation  is  different  from 
that  among  common  people.  The  first  says,  "Ya-ho"  (O  living  God) ; 
the  response  is,  "Ya-mal-ho"  (O  God,  Giver  of  life) ;  "Ya  hak" 
(O  truth,  O  truth). 

Among  Mush-to-hids,  two  tithes  are  given  to  those  who  excel  in 
holiness,  viz :  Pish-Namiz  and  Imam-Juma.  The  former  means  medi- 
ator in  prayer ;  the  latter,  the  prophet  of  holy  Friday. 

They  are,  indeed,  more  devoted  to  their  faith,  and  at  the  same 
time  more  fanatical  in  their  hatred  against  Christianity.  When  one 
of  these  priests  goes  to  the  mosque,  he  wears  a  large  turban  on  his 
head,  a  cloak  of  fur,  a  staff  with  gold  or  silver  handle.  He  wears  a  long 
beard,  which  is  painted  black.  Following  him  is  a  procession  of  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  men.  mostly  mollahs,  or  lower  class  who  are  faith- 
ful Moslems.  Proceeding  toward  the  mosque  with  slow  and  solemn 
tread,  he  is  saluted  by  people  of  all  classes  along  the  street  by  their 
rising  to  their  feet,  crossing  the  breast  with  the  arms  and  reverently 
bowing  before  him,  uttering  the  words,  "Sallam  ali-Kun  Agha"  (peace 
be  unto  you,  sir).     This  service  occurs  on  holy  Friday. 

Women  are  not  admitted  in  these  most  holy  and  solemn  services. 
The  Mush-ta-hid  stands  in  the  front  part  of  the  mosque,  facing  Mecca, 
and  all  the  audience  is  back  of  him.  As  he  advances  in  the  prayer,  all 
the  people  repeat  what  he  prays.  They  imitate  every  motion  he  makes. 
When  he  kneels,  they  kneel.  When  he  puts  the  ends  of  his  front  fingers 
in  his  ears,  the  entire  audience  does  the  same.  They  believe  all  prayers 
prayed  in  that  way  are  accepted  through  his  mediatorial  prayer. 

AL-HAJARU  'L-ASWAD. 

Lit.  "The  Black  Stone."  The  famous  black  stone  which  forms  part 
of  the  sharp  angle  of  the  Ka'bah  in  the  temple  at  Mecca.  Mr.  Burk- 
hardt  says,  "It  is  an  irregular  oval,  about  seven  inches  in  diameter,  with 
an  undulating  surface,  composed  of  about  a  dozen  smaller  stones  of  dif- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


395 


ferent  sizes  and  shapes,  well  joined  together  with  a  small  quantity  of 
cement,  and  perfectly  well  smoothed ;  it  looks  as  if  the  whole  had  been 
broken  into  as  many  pieces  by  a  violent  blow,  and  then  united  again. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  accurately  the  quality  of  this  stone, 
which  has  been  worn  to  its  present  surface  by  the  millions  of  touches 
and  kisses  it  has  received.  It  appeared  to  me  like  a  lava,  containing 
several  small  extraneous  particles  of  whitish  and  of  a  yellow  sub- 
stance. Its  color  is  now  a  deep  reddish  brown,  approaching  to  black. 
It  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  border  composed  of  a  substance  which 
I  took  to  be  a  close  cement  of  pitch  and  gravel  of  a  similar,  but  not 
quite  the  same,  brownish  color.  This  border  serves  to  support  its  de- 
tached pieces ;  it  is  two  or  three  inches  in  breadth,  and  rises  a  little  above 
the  surface  of  the  stone.  Both  the  border  and  the  stone  itself  are  en- 
circled by  a  silver  band,  broader  below  than  above,  and  on  the  two  sides 
with  a  considerable  swelling  below,  as  if  a  part  of  the  stone  were  hidden 
under  it.    The  lower  part  of  the  border  is  studded  with  silver  nails." 

Captain  Burton  remarks,  "The  color  appeared  to  me  black  and 
metallic,  and  the  center  of  the  stone  was  sunk  about  two  inches  below  the 
metallic  circle.  Round  the  sides  was  a  reddish  brown  cement,  almost 
level  with  the  metal,  and  sloping  down  to  the  middle  of  the  stone.  The 
band  is  now  a  massive  arch  of  gold  or  silver  gilt.  I  found  the  aperture 
in  which  the  stone  is,  one  span  and  three  fingers  broad." 

According  to  Ibu  'Abbas,  Mohammed  said  the  black  stone  came 
down  from  Paradise  and  at  the  time  of  its  descent  it  was  whiter  than 
milk,  but  that  the  sins  of  the  children  of  Adam  have  caused  it  to  be 
black,  by  their  touching  it.  That  on  the  Day  of  Resurrection,  when 
it  will  have  two  eyes,  by  which  it  will  see  and  know  all  those  who  touched 
it  and  kissed  it,  and  when  it  will  have  a  tongue  to  speak,  it  will  give  evi- 
dence in  favor  of  those  who  touched  and  kissed  it. 

Maximus  Tyrius,  who  wrote  in  the  second  century,  says,  "The 
Arabians  pay  homage  to  I  know  not  what  god,  which  they  represent 
by  a  quadrangular  stone,"  alluding  to  the  Ka'bah,  or  temple  which  con- 
tains the  black  stone.  The  Guebars,  or  Ancient  Persians,  assert  that 
the  black  stone  was  amongst  the  images  and  relics  left  by  Mahabad  and 
his  successors  in  the  Ka'bah,  and  that  it  was  an  emblem  of  Saturn.  It 
is  probably  an  aerolite,  and  owes  its  reputation,  like  many  others,  to 
its  fall  from  the  sky.  Its  existence  as  an  object  of  adoration  in  an  icon- 
oclastic religious  system,  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  Mohammed's 
attempt  to  conciliate  the  idolaters  of  Arabia. 


396 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


PLATE  I. 

The  Arabic  verse  at  the  top  of  the  page  is  from  the  Koran  "Sura 
el  Bukr"  or  "The  Cow" — (Chap.  1 :  198)  : 

"And  when  ye  go  in  procession  from  Mount  Arafat,  remember  God 
near  (El  Mashaar  el  Haram)  the  holy  monument." 

The  words  at  the  bottom  of  the  certificate  read  as  follows : 

"Praise  to  God  who  has  granted  us  the  privilege  of  the  Holy  House, 
and  the  well  of  Zamzam,  and  the  Yukano  (station  of  Abraham)  and  the 
station  of  the  Prophet,  may  Allah  pray  for  (or  bless)  him  and  grant  him 
peace!  *  *  *  After  this  preface  we  testify  that  the  Hajj  *  *  * 
has  performed  the  holy  pilgrimage  at  the  lawful  time  according  to  the 
holy  law  and  continued  clad  in  pilgrim  garb.  Ihram,  persevering  and 
praying  upon  (by  the  intercession  of)  the  Prophet,  may  the  Lord  bless 
him  and  grant  him  peace !  until  he  entered  Mecca  and  entered  the 
House  of  the  Haram  by  the  gate  of  Es  Salam,  and  went  around  the 
(Kaaba)  Haji  going  and  advancing,  and  went  to  Mount  Arafat,  on  the 
west  side,  and  joined  the  "rush"  to  Muzdalifa,  and  gathered  the  stones, 
and  spent  the  night  in  it  (Mina)  until  dawn  and  went  to  Mina  and  threw 
the  seven  stones  at  the  pillar  (Cairu)  of  Akaba ;  then  returned  to  Mecca 
and  performed  the  Towaf  of  the  visit;  then  returned  to  Mina  and  re- 
mained there  the  appointed  days,  and  hurled  stones  at  the  three  Carius 
(Jemeat)and  completed  the  Haji  and  the  'Omra.  Our  standing  or  wit- 
ness to  this  was  on  the  day  of  the  year  130 —  and  I  call  God 

to  witness  this,  and  He  is  the  best  of  witnesses. 

Then  follow  places  for  the  names  of  four  witnesses. 

At  the  right-hand  upper  corner  of  this  page  is  the  representation  of 
the  Mosque  of  Muzdalifa  and  the  tents  of  the  pilgrims ;  to  the  left  of 
this  the  Mosque  of  Nimr  near  Mount  Arafat  and  below  it  the  Mahmals 
of  Syria  and  Egypt,  i.  e.,  palanquins  carried  on  camels,  surmounted  by 
flags.  I  I 

To  the  right  is  Mount  Arafat,  a  secred  mountain,  about  12  miles 
northeast  of  Mecca,  which,  in  Moslem  tradition,  is  said  to  be  the  place 
where  Adam  and  Eve  met  after  the  fall.  They  were  in  the  Celestial 
Paradise  in  the  skies,  when  one  day,  while  walking  too  near  the  border, 
they  stumbled  and  fell  over  the  edge,  so  tumbling  down  into  this  world. 
This  is  the  Moslem  idea  of  the  "Fall."  Adam  landed  in  Ceylon  and 
Eve  at  Jeddah  on  the  Red  Sea.  He  was  200  years  searching  for  his 
wife;  but  at  length  he  set  out  westward,  stepping  sixty  leagues  at  a 
step,  and  wherever  his  foot  touched  the  ground,  a  city  sprang  up,  until 


Plate  L 


MECCA  CERTIFICATE,  OR  A  PASSPORT  TO  HEAVEN. 


398 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


at  length  he  met  Eve  at  this  mountain,  "Arafat-hoo.,  she  recognized 
him,"  hence  the  name  of  this  mountain.  At  the  foot  of  this  mountain, 
the  Mohammedans  believe  that  Abraham  offered  a  ram  in  sacrifice  in- 
stead of  his  son  Ishmael  (who,  according  to  the  Koran,  was  the  favored 
son  instead  of  Isaac).  Here  every  year  each  pilgrim  offers  a  sheep  as 
a  commemorative  sacrifice.  The  Bedowin  Arabs  from  Arabia  come  to- 
gether in  thousands  at  this  time,  bringing  their  vast  flocks  of  sheep, 
which  are  sold  to  the  pilgrims,  each  one  of  whom,  if  able,  is  to  buy 
and  sacrifice  a  sheep.  Formerly  the  offal  of  these  thousands  of  slaugh- 
tered animals  poisoned  the  air  and  produced  pestilence.  The  governor 
of  Mecca  now  has  great  trenches  dug  to  receive  this  offal.  In  1893,  when 
100,000  pilgrims  visited  Mecca,  and  50,000  died  of  cholera,  these  trenches 
were  filled  with  the  dead  bodies  of  the  pilgrims.  Hundreds  dropped  dead 
along  the  road  from  Mecca  to  Arafat,  and  while  writhing  in  the  contor-  - 
tions  and  agonies  of  the  cholera  convulsions,  no  medical  aid  was  asked 
or  provided.  The  devout  pilgrims  only  said  "Niyalhoo,"  "happy  man — 
he  has  died  at  Mecca." 

The  three  pillars  of  Mina,  which  are  also  represented  here,  are  an- 
cient pagan  shrines.  At  each  one  every  pilgrim  must  hurl  seven  stones 
at  the  devil. 

Near  this  is  pictured  the  Mesjed  or  Mosque  of  Taif,  the  altar  of 
Ishmael,  the  Dome  of  Abd-el  Kader  in  Baghdad,  and  at  the  extreme 
right  of  the  Dome  of  "Our  Lord"  Hassein  al  Kerbela,  where  thousands 
of  corpses  of  deceased  Persians  are  brought  yearly  to  be  buried.  It  is 
northwest  of  Baghdad  and  lies  in  Turkish  territory. 

Then  we  notice  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  of  Ali  ibu  Abi  Talib, 
of  Abu  Bekr,  and  Fatimeh,  and  the  tomb  of  Amina  and  Khadija ;  also 
two  bell-shaped  hills,  Jebel  Thowr,  and  Jebel  Noor. 

PLATE  II. 

At  the  top  of  this  page  is  a  verse  from  the  Koran  (Sura  III :  v.  90). 

"Verily,  the  first  house  appointed  unto  men  to  worship  in  was  that 
which  was  in  Becca  (Mecca)  blessed  and  a  direction  to  all  creatures." 

This  page  contains  the  quadrangular  court  of  the  Mecca  Haram, 
within  which  is  the  circular  colonnade,  enclosing  the  Kaaba  or  Beit  Allah 
the  House  of  God.  This  Kaaba  was,  in  the  days  of  Pre-Islamic  pagan- 
ism, a  pagan  temple,  and  was  adopted  by  Mohammed  as  a  sacred  shrine, 
out  of  deference  to  the  time-honored  superstitious  reverence  of  the 
Arabian  people,  especially  the  citizens  of  Mecca.  According  to  Burck- 
hardt,  its  sides  are  18  paces  by  14,  its  height  from  35  to  40  feet.    It  is 


Plate  11. 


MECCA  CERTIFICATE,  OR  PASSPORT  TO  HEAVEN. 


400 


PERSIA  BY£A  PERSIAN. 


covered  yearly  with  Kiswet  or  vail  of  black  brocade,  adorned  with  a 
broad  band  embroidered  with  golden  inscriptions  from  the  Koran;  it 
has  also  a  richer  curtain  for  the  door. 

The  old  Kiswet  is  removed  on  the  25th  day  of  the  month  before 
the  pilgrimage,  cut  up  into  small  pieces,  and  sold  to  the  pilgrims  for 
charms. 

At  the  southeast  corner  of  the  court  is  the  famous  Black  Stone,  or 
Hajr  el  Asswad,  a  meteoric  stone  set  in  the  wall,  about  a  span  long, 
which  is  reverently  kissed  by  every  pilgrim  seven  times,  as  he  makes  the 
seven-fold  circuit  of  the  Kaaba.  The  Moslems  claim  that  this  stone 
was  given  by  Gabriel  to  Abraham.  It  is  no  doubt  a  meteorite,  which 
fell  from  the  skies  in  ancient  days,  and  was  regarded  as  divine,  as  was 
the  "image  which  fell  down  from  Jupiter"  (Acts  19:35).  Mohammed, 
as  a  concession  to  the  Pagan  superstition  of  the  Meccans,  confirmed  the 
kissing  of  the  Black  Stone  as  a  religious  rite  of  Islam.  The  fiery  Omar, 
when  asked  why  he  kissed  the  stone,  said.  "Verily,  I  know  thou  art  a 
stone ;  thou  doest  no  good  or  harm  in  the  world,  and  if  it  was  not  that  1 
saw  the  Prophet  kiss  thee,  I  would  not  kiss  thee" — (Miskat  ul  Masabih, 
Book  XI :  ch.  iv.  pt.  iii).  Modern  intelligent  Mohammedans,  when 
asked  why  they  kiss  the  stone,  reply,  "God  knows,  we  do  not." 

Below  the  representation  of  the  Kaaba  is  depicted  the  famous 
station  of  Abraham,  a  stone  20  inches  long  by  15  inches  wide.  It  is  in 
the  shape  of  a  basin,  and  is  buried  in  the  earth.  The  name  of  Abraham 
is  connected  with  it  from  the  tradition  that  he  first  built  the  Kaaba. 

Below  this  may  be  noticed  the  famous  "Beer  Zamzam,"  Well  of 
Zamzam,  or  Well  of  Hagar,  which  is  claimed  to  be  the  water  which  Ha- 
gar  saw,  when  Ishmael  was  dying  of  thirst.  The  Moslems  ascribe  mirac- 
ulous virtues  to  its  tepid  waters,  and  the  manufacture  of  bottles  or  jars 
for  carrying  the  water  to  distant  countries  has  developed  into  quite  a 
trade.  The  curb  of  the  deep  well  is  on  a  level  with  the  pavement,  and 
as  the  vast  procession  of  pilgrims  comes  to  the  spot,  the  keepers  of  the 
well  draw  up  a  bucket,  the  pilgrim  drinks  a  little,  and  the  rest  is  poured 
over  his  body,  and  runs  back  into  the  well.  One  can  imagine  the  state 
of  this  water  when  ten  or  twenty  thousand  pilgrims  have  been  washed 
in  it! 

Even  when  cholera  is  raging,  the  same  use  of  this  well  is  continued; 
no  wonder  that  it  becomes  the  means  of  conveying  and  increasing  the 
cholera  germs  among  the  unfortunate  pilgrims,  so  that  the  European 
governments  have  urged  the  Sultan  to  enforce  a  reform,  cleanse  this 
water,  and  protect  the  lives  of  the  pilgrims. 


Plate  HL 


402 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Around  the  circle  are  the  praying  places  of  the'Malikis,  the  Hana- 
fys,  the  Hanbalys  and  the  Shafi-is,  the  four  great  sects  of  Islam. 

Around  the  quadrangle  are  20  gates,  such  as  Bab-su-Nebi,  Gate  of 
the  Prophet,  Gate  of  Abraham,  of  Peace,  of  Abbas,  of  the  Mare,  the 
Mule,  Safa,*  of  Farewell,  of  Wisdom,  etc.,  etc., — besides  various  shrines. 

PLATE  III. 

On  the  third  page  are  represented  the  Holy  Places  of  El  Medizet, 
the  tomb  of  Mohammed. 

The  Koranic  passage  at  the  top  reads  as  follows : 

"Said  the  Prophet,  may  God  bless  and  grant  him  peace!  Who 
visits  my  tomb,  has  my  intercession." 

The  large  dome  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner  is  the  tomb  of  Mo- 
hammed. Around  the  page  are  drawn  the  mosque  of  Fatimeh,  mosque 
of  the  strength  of  Islam,  the  mosques  of  Hamzeh,  Abu  Bekr,  Ali  and 
Silman,  the  tomb  of  Othman,  and  various  other  shrines. 

PLATE  IV. 

This  page  contains  the  Holy  Shrines  of  Jerusalem.  The  Haram-es- 
Sherif,  or  the  quadrangular  area  once  occupied  by  the  temple  of  Solo- 
mon, occupies  the  center  of  the  page.  The  verse  of  the  Koran  at  the 
top  is  from  Sura  xvii. : 

"Praise  be  unto  Him  who  transported  His  servant  (Mohammed)  by 
night  from  the  sacred  temple  (of  Mecca)  to  the  farther  temple,  the 
Mosque  El  Aksa  (of  Jerusalem)." 

The  mosque  commonly  known  as  the  Mosque  of  Omar,  is  here 
styled  "Beit  el  Mukdas"  or  the  Holy  House.  Under  the  dome  in  the 
black  circle  is  the  "Rock  of  God,"  or  the  "Suspended  Stone."  Every 
visitor  to  this  mosque  is  startled  at  finding  within  it,  surrounded  by 
the  iron  railing,  an  enormous  naked  rock.  This  was  very  probably  the 
summit  of  Mount  Moriah.  Moslem  traditions  say  that  when  Moham- 
med made  the  famous  "Mi'raj"  or  midnight  journey  from  Mecca  to 

*The  Hills  of  Safa  and  Merwah,  a  short  distance  outside  of  the  Herain,  be3Tond 
the  Bab  Safa,  are  two  hills,  Sata  and  Merwah,  on  the  top  of  which  in  Pre-Islamic 
days  stood  two  stone  idols,  worshiped  by  the  Pagan  Meccans.  When  they  accepted 
Islam,  it  was  on  condition  that  these  two  sacred  hill-tops  continue  to  be  visited 
as  a  part  of  the  holy  pilgrimage.  So  to  this  day,  every  Mohammedan  pilgrim, 
however  grave,  learned  and  dignified,  must  run  seven  times  from  the  top  of  Safa 
hill  to  the  top  of  Merwah  hill,  as  did  the  old  pagan  Arabs.  When  asked,  why  do 
you  do  this?  they  reply,  "Allah  knows,  we  do  not."  This  is  another  instance  of 
the  adoption  and  adaption  by  Mohammed  of  the  superstitions  of  paganism  in 
order  to  win  the  Meccans  to  his  cause. 


Plate  IV. 


MECCA  CERTIFICATE,  OR  A  PASSPORT  TO  HEAVEN. 
403 


404 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Jerusalem,  and  started  to  ascend  to  heaven,  this  rock  followed  him  until 
he  kicked  it  back  with  both  feet,  leaving  the  prints  of  his  two  feet  in 
the  rock,  which  has  ever  since  remained  suspended  in  the  air !  The  two 
footprints  of  the  prophet  are  pictured  below  the  rock. 

Below  this  are  the  Scales  of  "Mizan,"  in  which  all  men's  deeds  are 
to  be  weighed  at  the  last  day,  together  with  the  shears  which  cut  off  the 
life  of  men.  Men's  good  deeds  are  to  be  placed  in  one  scale-pan 
and  their  evil  deeds  in  the  other.  The  good  deeds  are  the  Mohamme- 
dan good  works,  viz.:  (i.)  To  repeat  the  Creed  or  Formula  "There  is 
no  God,  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  His  Apostle."  (2.)  To  give  alms 
to  the  poor.  (3.)  To  pray  five  times  a  day.  (4.)  To  keep  the  fast  of 
Ramadan.  (5.)  To  make  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  If  one  observes 
these  outward  rites,  his  good  deeds  will  outweigh  any  possible  evil 
deeds.  The  Arabs  have  a  proverbial  saying,  "If  a  man  has  been  to 
Mecca  once,  well  and  good ;  if  twice,  have  an  eye  on  him ;  if  three  times, 
have  nothing  to  do  with  him,  he  has  become  so  holy  that  he  is  dan- 
gerous," i.  e.,  he  has  laid  up  such  stock  of  religious  merit  that  he  can 
commit  any  amount  of  sin  with  impunity. 

At  the  bottom  of  this  fourth  page  of  the  Certificate  is  the  great 
Bridge  of  Siraat,  of  vast  length,  the  width  of  a  hair,  and  sharp  as  a 
razor,  over  which  every  mortal  must  walk  barefooted.  At  the  right 
of  it  is  the  pit  of  Jehenaam  or  hell,  and  to  the  left  Jenneh  or  Paradise. 
A  hazardous  feat  it  is  to  make  the  journey,  since  on  it  depends  one's 
eternal  destiny. 

Around  this  area  are  pictured  the  tombs  of  David,  Solomon,  Moses 
and  Jacob,  and  in  the  right-hand  upper  corner  is  seen  Jebel,  Toor 
Sina,  or  Mount  Sinai. 

This  certificate  is  the  Moslem  passport,  as  it  were,  to  Paradise.  If 
gives  one  in  brief  an  epitome  of  Mohammedan  faith  and  practice.  Islam 
is  a  religion  of  works,  of  human  merit.  There  is  no  way  of  salvation 
by  a  Redeemer.  These  200,000,000  of  Moslems  sorely  need  to  be 
taught  the  true  way  of  life,  even  salvation  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ,  their 
true  prophet,  priest  and  king. 

The  pilgrimage  is  strictly  commanded  to  Mohammedans.  There 
are  many  places  to  be  visited,  but  the  most  important  is  Medina,  the 
burial  place  of  Mohammed.  The  second  place  is  Mecca,  Mohammed's 
birthplace.  This  city  is  the  most  holy  to  all  the  Mohammedan  world. 
Here  is  the  old  temple  of  the  Arabs,  the  Kaaba,  which  was  converted 
by  Mohammed  into  a  mosque.  The  third  place  is  Karballa.  It  is  situ- 
ated near  Bagdad,  where  the  most  leaders  of  the  religion  live.  The 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


405 


fourth  place  is  Mashhad.  This  city  is  situated  in  the  northeast  part  of 
Persia,  in  the  state  of  Khorasan,  near  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  is  the  most 
holy  city  in  Persia.  Here  many  famous  persons  lie  buried,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  grandchildren  of  Mohammed. 

This  mosque  is  richer  than  Mecca  and  Karballa.  The  dome  is 
lined  with  gold  outside  and  inside.  Generally  each  king  of  Persia  makes 
expensive  presents,  but  the  most  remarkable  event  in  this  connection 
was  200  years  ago.  Nadirshah,  a  powerful  king  of  Persia,  who  con- 
quered India  and  despoiled  Calcutta  of  its  treasures,  made  a  present  to 
this  temple  of  a  crown  of  gold  adorned  with  precious  stones. 

Mohammedan  law  commands  all  to  go  to  these  holy  places.  Books 
of  ceremony  emphasize  the  importance  of  such  pilgrimage.  The  hope 
of  remission  of  sins  is  given  to  all  visitors  and  they  are  thereafter  called 
by  a  different  name  from  ordinary  men.  Everyone  has  confidence  in 
them,  and  sometimes  witnesses  are  called  from  this  class  of  men.  Their 
law  is,  every  able  man  must  go  and  God  will  provide  for  his  family,  and 
afterward  he  will  be  rich.  Everyone  who  refuses  to  go  is  not  a  true 
Moslem  and  does  not  love  his  religion. 

Preparations  for  the  journey  are  made  by  fasting  and  prayer.  They 
must  repent  of  every  sin,  and  sometimes  one  sees  men  praying  in  various 
ways  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  they  are  preparing  for  a  pilgrimage.  They 
put  on  a  sorrowful  countenance  and  walk  about  sadly,  all  of  which  is 
merely  for  vain  glory.  Every  day  they  must  wash  and  cleanse  themselves 
and  go  to  the  mosque.  If  they  are  at  enmity  with  any  one  they  must 
first  be  reconciled  before  their  journey  will  be  recognized.  Some  days 
before  starting  some  Say-yids  will  ride  on  blue  horses  with  long  spears 
in  their  hands.  They  will  walk  in  the  streets  crying  in  a  loud  voice  to 
all  those  who  are  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  prepare  themselves  and  be 
ready  on  a  certain  day.  Together  with  this  command  are  uttered  words 
of  comfort  and  encouragement.  They  tell  the  people  not  to  fear;  God 
will  send,  for  the  sake  of  Mohammed,  His  angels  and  prophets  riding 
on  blue  horses,  to  deliver  them  from  all  robbers  and  thieves. 

One  month  before  starting  each  man  must  make  donations  to  the 
poor,  according  to  his  ability.  The  pilgrim  goes  to  the  leader  to  inquire 
what  is  necessary  for  him  to  do,  and  how  to  do  it,  that  his  pilgrimage 
may  be  accepted.  The  priest  will  say,  if  the  man  is  rich :  "You  found  a 
mosque."  If  the  man  is  poor,  a  small  amount  of  money  is  required. 
Those  who  make  their  pilgrimage  on  horseback  scatter  money  on  the 
way  for  the  benefit  of  the  beggars  and  the  poor.  As  the  pilgrim  sets  out 
he  is  accompanied  by  friends  for  some  distance,  as  a  mark  of  honor  to 


i  06 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  faithful  Islam.  Before  the  band  of  pilgrims  the  leader  rides,  calling 
out  in  a  loud  voice,  "Salawat."  Not  only  the  living,  but  also  the  dead 
shall  go  to  these  places. 

Sometimes  when  a  stingy  man  dies  who  has  not  gone  on  a  pil- 
grimage in  his  lifetime,  he  exacts  a  promise  from  his  relatives  that  a 
certain  amount  of  his  money  will  be  used  to  carry  his  body  to  the  holy 
city.  If  this  promise  is  not  kept,  the  priest  will  compel  his  relatives  and 
heirs  to  restore  the  specified  money  for  sacred  purposes.  Thus  one 
may  see  caravans  with  hundreds,  even  thousands  of  horses  with  the 
boxes  containing  the  corpses  strapped  to  their  backs,  on  their  way  to 
the  holy  places. 

When  death  knocks  at  any  door,  the  house  is  the  scene  of  the 
wildest  demonstrations  of  grief.  Frequently  the  stillness  of  night  is 
disturbed  by  the  professional  mourners.  The  near  relatives  tear  their 
hair,  scratch  their  faces,  put  on  them  mud  and  dirt,  and  often  embrace 
the  lifeless  body. 

Among  the  Moslems  a  death  is  announced  by  the  Mollah  from 
the  housetop  of  the  dead,  by  repeating  certain  portions  of  the  Koran, 
and  in  the  case  of  a  wealthy  man  or  a  noble  this  is  done  twice.  The 
news  of  the  death  is  not  sent  to  distant  friends,  even  if  it  be  children, 
parents  or  brothers,  as  there  is  no  one  who  would  be  the  bearer  or  sender 
of  such  sad  news.  The  burial  follows  rapidly,  and  in  some  cases  people 
have  been  buried  alive,  as  passers  by  the  cemeteries  have  heard  voices, 
and  when  the  graves  have  been  opened  it  was  found  that  the  body  had 
changed  from  the  position  it  was  placed  in.  The  body  is  taken  first 
to  a  corpse-washing  house,  located  in  close  proximity  to  a  morgue,  or  in 
his  own  house,  where  it  is  thoroughly  washed  with  soap  and  water  by  a 
professional  body-washer,  who  is  accustomed  to  take  a  suit  of  the  dead 
man's  clothes  for  his  pay.  It  is  then  rinsed  with  abundance  of  fresh 
water,  after  which  water  containing  camphor  and  spices  is  poured  on 
the  head  three  times,  then  often  the  entire  body  the  same  num- 
ber of  times,  as  a  religious  ceremony.  A  new  white  shroud  is 
put  on  and  wound  around  the  body,  completely  covering  it  from  head 
to  foot.  It  is  then  placed  on  a  bier  and  carried  to  the  mosque,  where  it 
is  deposited  with  the  head  pointing  toward  Mecca.  The  procession  con- 
sists only  of  men  headed  by  a  Mollah,  who  repeats  passages  from  the 
Koran  on  the  way.  Children's  corpses  are  carried  on  a  pillow  and  adults' 
on  a  bier.  They  are  carried  by  different  companies  of  men,  who  change 
every  few  minutes,  as  there  is  a  merit  obtained  in  helping. 

Two  priests  and  the  friends  take  such  a  position  as  to  face  Mecca. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


407 


Then  the  whole  company  rattles  off  the  Moslem  prayer  in  Arabic,  after 
which  the  body  is  carried  to  the  cemetery.  It  is  then  taken  off  the  bier 
and  laid  alongside  the  selected  grave,  as  they  bury  without  a  coffin.  In 
the  meantime  prayers  are  said  and  the  body  is  lowered  and  laid  on  its 
right  side,  the  face  made  bare  and  facing  Mecca.  A  priest  takes  his 
place  at  the  head  and  in  a  loud  voice  recites  in  Arabic,  the  other  Mol- 
lahs-eontinuing  their  prayers.  When  the  man  at  the  head  of  the  grave 
begins  reciting,  the  grave  digger  takes  the  left  arm  of  the  corpse  and 
shakes  it  gently  till  the  recitation  is  finished,  in  order  to  attract  its  at- 
tention to  what  the  Mollah  has  to  say.  The  grave  is  roofed  over  with 
stone  about  a  foot  and  a  half  from  the  bottom,  thus  leaving  the  body 
in  a  small  underground  enclosure.  They  will  also  paint  his  or  her 
face  so  they  will  look  pretty,  and  fill  the  eyes  and  ears  and  the  spaces 
between  the  fingers  and  toes  with  cotton,  to  keep  the  devil  away  from 
the  body.  After  the  body  is  put  in  the  ground  the  relatives  take  candies 
and  fruits  to  those  who  attended  the  service,  and  the  priest,  after  all  are 
gone,  will  sprinkle  the  grave  with  holy  water  and  will  say  to  him  who 
has  died :  "Give  good  answer  to  God  and  do  not  be  ashamed,  neither 
be  thou  afraid,  because  Mohammed  is  before  God  and  is  making  inter- 
cession for  you." 

They  believe  that,  after  all  have  gone  away,  he  will  arise  and  wash 
his  face  in  the  holy  water  sprinkled  on  his  grave,  and  will  then  be  ready 
for  judgment. 

When  they  cut  their  finger  nails  they  generally  preserve  them  and 
put  them  in  their  coffins  and  bury  them.  Once  there  was  a  very  religious 
man  who  cut  his  finger  nails  and  put  them  away  carefully;  some  boys 
found  them  and  scattered  them,  and  he  was  very  angry  and  said,  "Now 
what  will  I  do  in  resurrection  as  God  will  ask  for  them?" 

In  shaving  the  head  the  hair  in  the  central  part  of  the  head  will  not 
be  shaven,  and  this  is  about  two  feet  long ;  this  enables  Prophet  Moham- 
med to  draw  a  person  up  to  heaven  on  the  last  day. 

The  friends  assemble  at  the  funeral  with  such  expressions  as,  "May 
God  be  merciful  to  you !"  "May  your  life  be  prolonged !"  "Our  life  is 
from  God !"  "It  is  the  will  of  God !"  "It  is  the  act  of  God ;  we  must  be  re- 
signed!" Tea  and  coffee  are  served,  and  sometimes  pilan  and  other 
viands  at  great  expense.  Hired  mourners  are  in  attendance.  The  Mol- 
lah recites  a  dirge  telling  them  not  to  weep  for  their  friends,  but  to  weep 
for  Husain  and  the  slaughtered  innocents.  The  tender  hearts  of  the 
bereaved  are  easily  moved  and  their  tears  and  their  beatings  on  their 
breasts  are  a  merit  as  being  for  the  martyrs.   Neither  the  men  nor  the 


408 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


women  wash  their  faces  or  comb  their  hair  until  the  first  days  of  mourn- 
ing are  over. 

The  men  open  the  seams  of  their  coats  as  if  rending  their  garments, 
and  put  dust  on  their  hats.  A  bereaved  woman  sometimes  tears  her  flesh 
with  her  nails,  pulls  out  her  hair,  uncovers  her  head  and  sits  in  the  hot 
sun  screaming. 

The  length  and  loudness  of  the  wailing  are  supposed  to  indicate  the 
depth  of  the  sorrow.  For  two  weeks  wailing  is  so  loud  that  the  neigh- 
bors a  block  away  can  hear  it.  The  women  has  companions  to  some- 
times weep  with  her ;  sometimes  scold  and  unbraid  her  that  the  death  is 
not  a  fact.  The  putting  on  of  the  oldest  clothes  is  a  sign  of  mourning. 
"°rayers  and  reading  of  the  Koran  are  a  part  of  the  ceremony  at  the 
grave.  They  are  also  repeated  on  the  eve  of  Friday  and  on  special 
mourning  days.  On  these  occasions  the  people  and  the  Mollahs  crowd 
the  cemeteries,  to  pray,  mourn  and  eat  pilan  and  taffy. 

The  grave  of  a  man  is  dug  three  or  four  feet  deep ;  that  of  a  woman, 
two  feet  deeper.  The  face  is  placed  toward  Mecca.  Some  bodies  are 
laid  on  the  ground  and  incased  in  bricks  and  reserved  to  be  removed  to 
some  shrine.   Thousands  of  corpses  are  taken  to  Kerbela  or  Meshed. 

Each  Friday  the  Koran  must  be  read  at  the  tombs  or  graves  of  the 
dead.  The  friends  and  relatives  will  induce  some  one  to  go  there  and 
read  the  Koran  every  Friday.  In  this  case  several  families  may  join 
together  to  obtain  a  man  to  go  and  read  the  Koran  every  Friday  for 
some  hours. 

Then  after  seven  years  or  more,  the  bones  will  be  dug  out  and  put 
in  boxes  and  prepared  to  be  sent  to  Mohammed's  burying  ground.  The 
object  of  these  trips  is  to  secure  heaven  for  the  dead,  because  the  pro- 
phet said,  "If  the  bones  of  a  man  shall  be  near  mine,  there  will  be  no 
doubt  of  their  resurrection  with  me  on  the  last  day ;  but  if  they  are  too 
far  from  any  burying  ground,  then  my  power  might  not  reach  them 
in  giving  them  privilege  of  resurrection."  Thus  the  people  will  do  all 
in  their  power  to  send  the  bones  of  their  beloved  ones  near  to  his  bury- 
ing grounds. 

PERSIAN  SNAKE  CHARMER. 

Snake  charming  has  been  known  and  practiced  for  thousands 
of  years.  In  western  Asia  at  present  it  is  practiced  by  Mohammedans, 
who  believe  that  it  is  done  through  spiritual  power.  They  are  especially 
proud  of  their  knowledge  and  skill  and  regard  it  as  a  gift  imparted 
to  them  through  their  religion  and  practiced  through  the  aid  of  some 
spirits  or  genii. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


409 


Snake  charmers  are  a  very  cruel,  savage,  hard-hearted  class  of  peo- 
ple. They  curse  and  swear  and  revile,  using  the  coarsest  and  foulest 
language  imaginable.  By  their  very  wickedness  they  seem  to  exercise 
an  influence  in  overcoming  the  ugly  reptiles. 

Sometimes  these  charmers  find  snakes  who  do  not  want  to  hear  their 
voice.  So  David  speaks  of  the  wicked :  "They  go  astray  as  soon  as 
they  be  born,  speaking  lies.  Their  poison  is  like  the  poison  of  a  serpent ; 
they  are  like  a  deaf  adder  that  stoppeth  her  ear ;  which  will  not  harken 
to  the  voice  of  the  charmers,  charming  never  so  wisely."  Ps.  lviii.  3-5. 

Some  snakes  are,  however,  very  easily  charmed.  For  instance,  if  a 
charmer  sees  a  hole  in  which  he  supposes  there  is  a  snake,  he  will  stand 
over  the  hole  and  utter  some  incantation  in  the  Arabic  language,  where- 
upon the  snake  will  come  out.  The  charmer  will  then  pick  it  up  in  his 
hand  and  put  it  in  his  bosom.   The  snake  will  do  him  no  harm. 

In  the  public  squares  of  Persian  cities,  charmers  may  often  be  seen 
with  a  great  number  of  different  kinds  of  snake  sin  boxes.  He  will  talk 
about  them,  taking  up  one  snake  at  a  time,  and  telling  the  character- 
istics of  each ;  how  it  bites,  how  it  lives  and  where  it  lives.  The  Moham- 
medans regard  a  snake  charmer  as  a  holy  man,  whom  even  the  venomous 
snakes,  the  universal  enemies  of  mankind,  obey.  Therefore,  superstitious 
people  who  have  been  sick,  believe  that  snake  charmers  can  cure  them 
by  their  magical  power  which  has  been  implanted  in  them  by  the  Imams 
or  Mohammedan  pontiffs. 

AL-HASAN. 

The  fifth  Khalifah.  The  eldest  son  of  Fatimah,  the  daughter  of  Mo- 
hammed by  her  husband,  the  Khalifah  'Ali,  Born,  A.  H.  3.  Died  A.  Ft. 
49.  He  succeeded  his  father,  'Ali,  as  Khalifah  A.  H.  41,  and  reigned 
about  six  months.  He  resigned  the  Khalifate  in  favor  of  Mu'awiyah, 
and  was  eventually  poisoned  by  his  wife,  Ju'da,  who  was  suborned  to 
commit  the  deed  by  Yazid,  the  son  of  Mu'awiyah,  by  a  promise  of  mar- 
rying her,  which  promise  he  did  not  keep.  Al-Hasan  had  twenty  chil- 
dren ;  fifteen  sons  and  five  daughters,  from  whom  are  descended  one 
section  of  the  great  family  of  Saiyids,  or  Lords,  the  descendants  of  the 
Prophet.  The  history  of  al-Hasan,  together  with  the  tragical  death 
of  his  brother,  al-Husain,  forms  the  plot  of  the  miracle  play  of  the  Mu- 
harram. 

AL-HUSAIN. 

The  second  son  of  Fatimah,  the  daughter  of  Mohammed,  by  her 
son,  'Ali,  the  fourth  Khalifah.   A  brother  to  al-Hasan,  the  fifth  Khalifah. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA.  411 

According  to  the  Shi'ahs,  he  was  the  third  Khalifah.  He  was  born 
A.  H.  4,  and  died  at  Karbala  A.  H.  61,  being  cruelly  slain  in  his  conflict 
with  Yazid,  the  seventh  Khalifah,  according  to  the  Sunnis.  The  martyr- 
dom of  al-Husain  is  celebrated  by  the  Shiahs  every  year  during  the 
first  ten  days  of  the  Muharram ;  an  account  of  his  tragic  death  is  there- 
fore necessary  for  understanding  the  intensity  of  feeling  with  which  the 
scenes  and  incidents  of  the  last  days  of  the  "Imam  Husain"  are  en- 
acted in  the  "Miracle  Play." 

Shortly  after  the  accession  of  Yezid  (Yazid),  Husain  received 
at  Mecca  secret  messages  from  the  people  of  Cufa,  entreating  him  to 
place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  army  of  the  faithful  in  Babylonia.  Yezid, 
however,  had  full  intimation  of  the  intended  revolt,  and  long  before 
Husain  could  reach  Cufa,  the  too  easy  governor  of  that  city  had  been 
replaced  by  Obaidallah  ('Ubai-du  'llah  ibu  Ziyad),  the  resolute  ruler 
of  Busorah  (al-Basrah),  who  by  his  rapid  measures  disconcerted  the 
plans  of  the  conspirators,  and  drove  them  to  a  premature  outbreak,  and 
the  surrender  of  their  leader  Moslem.  The  latter  foresaw  the  ruin 
which  he  had  brought  on  Husain,  and  shed  bitter  tears  on  that  account 
when  captured.  His  head  was  struck  off  and  sent  to  Yezid.  On  Husain 
arriving  at  the  confines  of  Babylonia,  he  was  met  by  Harro  (al-Hurr), 
who  had  been  ssnt  out  by  Obaidallah  with  a  body  of  horsemen  to  inter- 
cept his  approach.  Husain,  addressing  them,  asserted  his  title  to  the 
Khalifate,  and  invited  them  to  submit  to  him.  Harro  replied,  "We  are 
commanded  as  soon  as  we  meet  you  to  bring  you  directly  to  Cufa  into 
the  presence  of  Obaidallah,  the  son  of  Ziyad."  Husain  answered,  "I 
would  sooner  die  than  submit  to  that,"  and  gave  the  word  to  his  men 
to  ride  on ;  but  Harro  wheeled  about  and  intercepted  them.  At  the  same 
time,  Harro  said,  "I  have  no  commission  to  fight  with  you,  but  I  am 
commanded  not  to  part  with  you  until  I  have  conducted  you  into  Cufa ;" 
but  he  bade  Husain  choose  any  road  into  that  city  "that  did  not  go 
directly  back  to  Mecca,"  "and  do  you,"  said  he,  "write  to  Yezid  or  Obai- 
dallah, and  I  shall  write  to  Odaidallah,  and  perhaps  it  may  please  God 
I  may  meet  with  something  that  will  bring  me  off  without  my  being 
forced  to  an  extremity  on  your  account."  Then  he  retreated  his  force 
a  little  to  allow  Husain  to  lead  the  way  toward  Cufa,  and  Husain  took 
the  road  that  leads  by  Adib  and  Cadisia.  This  was  on  Thursday,  the 
first  of  Mohurrum,  A.  H.  61  (A.  D.  680).  When  night  came  on,  he 
still  continued  his  march  all  through  the  night.  As  he  rode  on  he  nodded 
a  little,  and  waking  again,  said,  "Men  travel  by  night,  and  the  destinies 
travel  toward  them ;  this  I  know  to  be  a  message  of  death." 


U2 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


In  the  morning  after  prayers  were  over,  he  mended  his  pace,  and 
as  he  rode  on  there  came  up  a  horseman,  who  took  no  notice  of  him, 
but  saluted  Harro,  and  delivered  to  him  a  letter,  giving  orders  from  Obai- 
dallah  to  lead  Husain  and  his  men  into  a  place  where  was  neither  town 
nor  fortifications,  and  there  leave  them  till  the  Syrian  forces  should  sur- 
round them. 

This  was  on  Friday  the  2nd  of  Mohurrum.  The  day  after,  Amer 
came  upon  them  with  four  thousand  men,  who  were  on  their  march  to 
Dailam.  They  had  been  encamped  without  the  walls  of  Cufa,  and  when 
Obaidallah  heard  of  Husain's  coming,  he  commanded  Amer  to  defer  his 
march  to  Dailam  and  go  against  Husain.  But  one  and  all  dissuaded  him. 
''Beware  that  you  go  not  against  Husain,  and  rebel  against  your  Lord, 
and  cut  off  mercy  from  you,  for  you  had  better  be  deprived  of  the  do- 
minion of  the  whole  world  than  meet  your  Lord  with  the  blood  of  Hu- 
sain upon  you."  Amer  was  fain  to  acquiesce,  but  upon  Obaidallah  re- 
newing his  command  with  threats,  he  marched  against  Husain,  and  came 
up  with  him  as  aforesaid,  on,  Saturday  the  3rd  of  Mohurrum. 

On  Amer  sending  to  inquire  of  Husain  what  brought  him  thither, 
the  latter  replied,  "The  Cufans  wrote  to  me ;  but  since  they  reject  me,  I 
am  willing  to  return  to  Mecca." 

Amer  was  glad  when  he  heard  it,  and  said,  "I  hope  God  I  may  be  ex- 
cused from  fighting  against  him."  Then  he  wrote  his  purpose  to  Obai- 
dallah ;  but  Obaidallah  sternly  replied,  ''Get  between  him  and  the  river," 
and  Amer  did  so ;  and  the  name  of  the  place  where  he  cut  Husain  off 
from  the  Euphrates  was  called  Kerbela  (Karbala) :  "Kerb  (anguish)  ami 
bela  (vexation),  trouble  and  affliction,"  said  Husain,  when  he  heard  it. 

Then  Husain  sought  a  conference  with  Amer,  in  which  he  proposed 
either  to  go  to  Yezid,  to  return  to  Mecca,  or,  as  some  add,  but  others 
deny,  to  fight  against  the  Turks.  Odaidallah  was  at  first  inclined  to 
accede  to  these  conditions,  until  Shamer  stood  up  and  swore  that  no 
terms  should  be  made  with  Husain,  adding  significantly  that  he  had  been 
informed  of  a  long  conference  between  Husain  and  Amer. 

Then  Obaidallah  sent  Shamer  with  orders  to  Amer,  that  if  Husain 
would  surrender  unconditionally,  he  would  be  received ;  if  not,  Amer 
was  to  fall  upon  him  and  his  men,  and  trample  them  under  his  feet. 
Should  he  refuse  to  do  so,  Shamer  was  to  strike  off  Amer's  head,  and 
himself  command  the  attack  against  Husain. 

Tims  passed  Sunday  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thursday,  and 
Friday,  the  4th,  5th,  6th,  7th,  8th,  and  9th  of  Mohurrum.  On  the  evening 
of  the  9th  Amer  drew  up  his  forces  close  to  Husain's  camp,  and  himself 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


413 


rode  up  to  Husain  as  he  was  sitting  in  the  door  of  his  tent  just  after  the 
evening  prayer  and  told  him  of  the  conditions  offered  by  Obaidallah  ;  Hu- 
sain desired  Amer  to  give  him  time  until  the  next  morning  when  he 
would  make  his  answer. 

In  the  night  his  sister  came  weeping  to  his  bedside,  and,  awaking 
him,  exclaimed,  "Alas,  for  the  desolation  of  my  family !  my  mother, 
Fatima  is  dead,  and  my  father  Ali,  and  my  brother  Husan.  Alas  for 
the  destruction  that  has  passed !  and  alas  for  the  destruction  that  is  to 
come!"  "Sister,"  Husain  replied,  "put  your  trust  in  God,  and  know 
that  man  is  bound  to  die,  and  that  the  heavens  shall  not  remain ;  every- 
thing shall  pass  away,  but  the  presence  of  God,  who  created  all  things 
by  His  power,  and  shall  make  them  by  His  power  to  pass  away,  and 
they  shall  return  to  Him  alone.  My  father  was  better  than  me,  and  my 
mother  was  better  than  me ;  and  my  brother  was  better  than  me ;  and 
they  and  we  and  all  Moslems  have  an  example  in  the  Apostle  of  God." 
Then  he  told  his  men  that  Obaidallah  wanted  nobody  but  him,  and  that 
they  should  go  away  to  their  homes.  But  they  said :  "God  forbid,  that 
we  should  ever  see  the  day  wherein  we  survive  you !"  Then  he  com- 
manded them  to  cord  their  tents  close  together,  and  make  a  line  of 
them,  so  as  to  keep  out  the  enemy's  horse.  And  he  digged  a  trench 
behind  his  camp,  which  he  filled  with  wood  to  be  set  on  fire,  so  that  he 
could  only  be  attacked  in  front.  The  rest  of  the  night  he  spent  in 
prayer  and  supplication,  while  the  enemy's  guard  patrolled  all  night  long 
round  and  round  his  camp. 

The  next  morning  both  sides  prepared  for  the  slaughter.  Husain 
first  washed  and  anointed  himself  with  musk,  and  several  of  his  chief 
men  did  the  like;  and  one  asking  them  what  it  meant,  Husain  replied 
pleasantly,  "Alas !  there  is  nothing  between  us  and  the  black  eyed  girls 
of  Paradise  but  that  these  troopers  come  down  upon  us  and  slay  us !" 
Then  he  mounted  his  horse,  and  set  the  Koran  before  him,  crying,  "O 
God,  Thou  art  my  confidence  in  every  trouble  and  my  hope  in  every  ad- 
versity!" And  submitted  himself  to  the  judgment  of  his  companions 
before  they  opened  the  pages  of  the  sacred  volume.  At  this  his  sisters 
and  daughters  began  to  weep,  when  he  cried  out  in  bitter  anguish,  self- 
reproachfully,  "God  reward  the  son  of  Abbas,"  in  allusion  to  advice 
which  his  cousin,  Abdullah  ibu  Abbas,  had  given  him,  to  leave  the 
women  behind  in  Mecca.  At  this  movement  a  party  of  the  enemy's 
horse  wheeled  about  and  came  up  to  Husain,  who  expected  to  be  at- 
tacked by  them.  But  it  was  Harro,  who  had  quitted  the  ranks  of  the 
Syrian  army  and  had  now  come  to  die  with  Husain,  and  testify  his  re- 


414 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


pentance  before  men  and  God.  As  Harro  rode  into  the  doomed  camp, 
he  shouted  back  to  Amer,  "Alas  for  you!"  Whereupon  Amer  com- 
manded his  men  to  "bring  up  the  colors."  As  soon  as  they  were  set 
in  front  of  the  troops,  Shamer  shot  an  arrow  into  the  camp,  saying,  "Bear 
witness  that  I  shot  the  first  arrow,"  and  so  the  fight  began  on  both  sides. 
It  raged  chiefly  in  a  series  of  single  combats,  until  noon-day,  when  both 
sides  retired  to  prayer,  Husain  adding  to  the  usual  office  the  "Prayer 
of  Fear,"  never  used  but  in  cases  of  extremity.  When  shortly  after- 
wards the  fight  was  renewed,  Husain  was  struck  on  the  head  by  a  sword. 
Faint  with  the  loss  of  blood,  he  sat  down  by  his  tent  and  took  upon  his 
lap  his  little  son,  Abdullah,  who  was  at  once  killed  by  a  flying  arrow. 
He  placed  the  little  corpse  upon  the  ground,  crying  out,  "We  come  from 
God  and  we  return  to  him.  O  God,  give  me  strength  to  bear  these 
misfortunes."  Growing  thirsty,  he  ran  toward  the  Euphrates,  where, 
as  he  stooped  to  drink,  an  arrow  struck  him  in  the  mouth.  Raising 
his  hands,  all  besmeared  and  dripping  with  blood,  to  heaven,  he  stood 
for  awhile  and  prayed  earnestly.  His  little  nephew,  a  beautiful  child, 
who  went  up  to  kiss  him,  had  his  hand  cut  off  with  a  sword,  on  which 
Husain  again  wept,  saying,  "Thy  reward,  dear  child,  is  with  thy  fore- 
fathers in  the  realms  of  bliss."  Hounded  on  by  Shamer,  the  Syrian 
troops  now  surrounded  him;  but  Husian,  nothing  daunted,  charged 
them  right  and  left.  In  the  midst  of  the  fighting,  his  sister  came  between 
him  and  his  slayers,  crying  out  to  Amer,  how  he  could  stand  by  and  see 
Husain  slain.  Whereupon,  with  tears  trickling  down  his  beard,  Amer 
turned  his  face  away;  but  Shamer,  with  threats  and  curses,  set  on  his 
soldiers  again,  and  at  last  one  wounded  Husain  upon  the  hand,  and  a 
second  gashed  him  on  the  neck,  and  a  third  thrust  him  through  the 
body  with  a  spear.  No  sooner  had  he  fallen  to  the  ground  than  Shamer 
rode  a  troop  of  horsemen  over  his  corpse,  backwards  and  forwards, 
over  and  over  again,  until  it  was  trampled  into  the  very  ground,  a 
scarcely  recognizable  mass  of  mangled  flesh  and  mud. 

"Thus,  twelve  years  after  the  death  of  his  brother  Hasan  Husain, 
the  second  son  of  Ali,  met  his  own  death  on  the  bloody  plain  of  Ker- 
bela,  on  Saturday,  the  ioth  day  of  Mohurrum,  A.  H.  61  (A.  D.  680)." 
From  al-Husain  and  his  brother  al-Hasan  are  derived  the  descendants 
of  the  prophet,  known  throughout  Islam  as  Saiyids. 

After  the  death  of  Mohammed,  the  succession  was  disputed,  al- 
though the  Shiahs  affirm  that  Mohammed  had  already  designated  Ali 
as  his  successor.  The  succession  appeared  to  belong  by  right,  as  well 
as  by  nature,  to  Ali,  who  was  married  to  Fatimeh,  the  only  surviving 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


415 


daughter  of  the  prophet.  But  it  was  not  until  the  accession  and  assas- 
sination of  Abu  Bekr,  Omar  and  Othman,  that  the  magnanimous  Ali 
was  elected  to  the  Khalifate.  Even  then,  he  was  not  permitted  to  enjoy 
the  long-deferred  honors  without  an  opposition  which  eventually  proved 
fatal,  not  only  to  himself  but  also  to  the  continuation  of  the  Khalifate 
in  the  family  of  the  founder  of  the  faith.  When  Ali  was  in  turn 
assassinated  his  oldest  son,  Hasan,  assumed  the  Khalifate,  to  which  he 
was  peacefully  elected  by  the  people  of  Medina  or  Medinah.  At  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  he  marched  to  encounter  Noaviyeh.  The 
enthusiasm  of  his  generals  and  forces  promised  a  decisive  victory,  but 
Hasan  was  a  man  of  peaceable  disposition,  averse  to  active  life,  and 
preferring  the  tranquil  domesticity  of  a  private  citizen.  He  proposed 
to  abdicate  in  favor  of  Noaviyeh,  reserving  the  succession  to 
himself  after  the  death  of  Noaviyeh,  who  was  much  the  elder,  and  an 
ample  revenue  during  a  life  of  ease  and  retirement  at  Medina.  The 
terms  of  the  pacification  were  accepted  and  religiously  followed  by 
Noaviyeh.  Yezid,  his  son,  foreseeing  that  the  approaching  death 
of  his  father  would  restore  the  virtuous  Hasan  to  the  Khalifate,  caused 
the  latter  to  be  poisoned  by  one  of  his  wives. 

Husain,  a  brother  of  Hasan,  was  a  man  of  different  metal.  He 
had  opposed  his  brother's  abdication,  and  he  now  perceived,  after 
escaping  a  plot  to  assassinate  him,  that  the  empire  was  not  large  enough 
to  contain,  himself  and  Yezid  in  peace.  He  therefore  boldly  pre- 
pared for  a  final  conflict  that  was  to  decide  the  claims  of  the  Aliites 
and  the  Ommiades.  Escaping  from  Medina,  whose  governor  had 
schemed  to  entrap  him,  Husain  hastened  wtih  his  family  to  Cufa.  The 
inhabitants  of  Cufa  had  hardly  sent  a  pressing  message  to  Husain  to 
resort  to  their  city,  with  the  offer  of  a  powerful  host,  and  their  homage, 
when  they  allowed  themselves  to  be  easily  diverted  from  their  purpose 
by  the  swift  messenger  sent  by  Yezid,  who  was  ordered  to  seize  Cufa. 

But,  Husain  was  a  man  of  courage,  and,  what  was  more,  a  true 
believer  in  predestination.  "What  is  written,  is  written,"  is  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Koran,  of  what  worth  is  faith,  if  it  will  not  bear  the  test  in 
the  hour  of  trial?  What  better  occasion  could  offer  for  the  son  of  Ali 
to  testify  to  his  descent  from  the  prophet,  and  to  his  unflinching  belief 
in  the  tremendous  fiat  of  Kismet.  Therefore,  accompanied  by  his 
family  and  a  score  or  two  of  Arab  horsemen,  Husain  went  forth  un- 
flinchingly to  meet  his  doom.  The  heroism  of  Husain  was  the  more 
remarkable,  because  from  the  outset  of  his  journey  he  was  oppressed 
by  a  presentment  of  death  stalking  in  his  path  across  the  desert,  and 


416 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


rapidly  overtaking  the  small  troop  of  devoted  victims  wearily  marching 
to  the  grave.  "To  God  we  belong,  and  to  God  we  return,"  was  his 
utterance.  His  four  brothers,  sons  of  Ali  by  another  wife,  and  all  his 
companions  also  declined  to  accept  the  safe  conduct  offered  to  them, 
choosing  to  share  the  fate  of  Husain.  In  the  meantime,  the  enemy's 
forces  had  planted  themselves  between  the  camp  of  Husain  and  the 
Euphrates,  and  to  the  other  horrors  of  this  terrible  hour  was  now 
added  that  of  thirst,  in  a  land  quivering  with  intolerable  heat. 

The  last  night  in  the  little  camp  was  one  of  solemn  preparation, 
of  portentious  dreams  and  fateful  gloom.  Zeineb  and  Husain,  brother 
and  sister,  the  children  of  Ali  and  Fatimeh,  held  mournful  converse  on 
the  creeping  horrors  of  the  morrow,  the  day  that  should  see  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  family  of  the  prophet  of  God.  Around  them  gathered,  one  by 
one,  their  children  and  kinfolks  and  the  small  band  of  faithful  defenders. 
Husain  urged  them  to  fly  while  yet  there  was  time,  for  the  enemy 
sought  only  the  life  of  one,  his  own.  "Allah  forbid  that  we  desert  you 
now,"  exclaimed  Abbass,  and  all  united  in  exclaiming  with  him  that 
they  would  die  with  Husain.  The  time  for  deliberation  was  passed ; 
there  remained  for  them  but  one  thing — to  die.  The  attack  was  begun 
by  Shamer,  a  fierce  partisan.  The  combat  continued  until  the  hour 
for  noon  prayer,  when  there  came  a  cessation  of  arms.  During  flvr 
for  noon  prayer,  when  there  came  a  cessation  of  arms.  During  the 
over  thirty  wounds,  and  his  head  was  struck  off  by  the  ferocious 
Shamer,  who  carried  it  all  gory  to  Obeid  Allah.  Among  the  slain  were 
eighteen  descendants  of  Ali  and  Fatimeh.  Zeineb  and  some  of  the 
women  were  spared,  and  eventually  taken  into  the  presence  of  Yezid, 
together  with  the  heads  of  Husain  and  his  brothers.  Yezid  acted  with 
moderation,  and  the  remaining  descendants  of  the  prophet  seemed  to 
have  retired  from  further  participation  in  public  affairs,'  laying  aside 
ambition  and  merging  themselves  into  the  life  of  private  citizens  or  of 
religious  teachers  and  expounders  of  the  faith.  Assuming  the  office 
of  vindicator  of  the  growing  sect  of  Sheahs,  who  cherished  the  memory 
of  Ali,  Al  Muchtar  entered  on  a  mission  of  extermination  against  all 
who  were  concerned  in  the  slaughter  of  Husain.  The  entire  Moham- 
medan world  from  Afghanistan  to  the  Straits  of  Gibralter  now  seemed 
to  acknowledge  the  sway  of  the  caliphs  of  the  line  of  Moaviyeh  and  his 
successors.  The  rival  claims  of  Ali  and  his  family  appeared  laid  at 
rest  and  forgotten.  But  no ;  in  Iran,  or  Persia,  the  sectaries  of  Ali  were 
slowly  biding  their  time.  It  is  not  a  little  singular  that  not  at  Mecca 
nor  at  Medina,  where  the  prophet  first  proclaimed  his  doctrines,  were 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


41? 


the  claims  of  his  children  accepted,  but  in  a  distant  land  peopled  by 
another  race.  His  children  were  buried  in  foreign  soil,  and  the  honor 
accorded  to  their  memory  is  to  be  found  not  in  Arabia,  but  in  Persia. 
This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the  wives  of  Husain  was 
a  daughter  of  Yezdigerd,  the  last  monarch  of  the  Sassanian  line.  Her 
remains  were  brought  to  her  native  land,  and  her  tomb  is  shown  on  the 
rocky  heights  which  overlook  the  extensive  ruins  of  Rhei,  the  last  capi- 
tal of  the  Sassanides,  where  she  bade  her  father  farewell. 

Moslems  of  Persia  say  that  when  Husain  was  to  be  beheaded,  he 
was  very  thirsty,  and  asked  for  a  drink  of  water  before  being  beheaded. 
But  this  request  was  not  granted  and  he  was  executed  with  his  thirst 


WATER-CARRIER  ON  THE  ASS. 

unquenched.  In  memory  of  this  tragedy  there  may  now  be  seen  walking 
the  streets  of  Persian  cities  every  warm  summer  day  men  carrying  a 
bottle  or  jar  of  water  and  crying,  "Sakkaw,  sakkaw,"  (their  name)  and 
giving  water  to  any  who  may  be  thirsty  in  the  name  of  Husain. 
Moslems  take  this  drink  in  a  cup  carried  by  the  sakkaw,  but  a  Chris- 
tian must  furnish  his  own  cup  or  drink  from  the  palms  of  his  hands. 
If- offered  one  or  two  cents  the  sakkaw  will  take  it,  but  he  never  asks 
for  money.  The  killing  of  Husain  and  his  followers  occurred  in  the 
month  of  Mooharram.  This  entire  month  is  observed  as  a  time  of 
lamentation  for  Hasan,  Husain  and  their  followers  who  were  slain. 


U8 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


During  this  period  every  man,  woman  and  child  of  the  Shute  Moslems 
are  under  obligations  to  wear  black  garments.  The  last  ten  days  of 
Mooharram  are  observed  in  a  fanatical  spirit  as  a  revival  of  religion. 
This  period  is  called  Ashara,  meaning  ten  days.  The  first  seven  days 
are  for  preparation.  The  mosque  will  be  crowded  with  men  and  women. 
The  Masya-Kahns,  or  revivalist  priests,  are  in  charge  of  these  services. 
Followed  by  a  large  procession  this  priest  goes  to  the  mosque  and  mount- 
ing a  high  pulpit  preaches  to  large  crowds.  His  general  theme  is  tragic 
tales,  stories  of  martyrs,  the  manner  of  their  death,  their  last  utterances, 
and  the  wailing  and  moaning  of  their  friends  and  relatives.  Often  in  the 
concluding  words  of  a  pathetic  story,  the  entire  audience,  sometimes 
numbering  thousands,  will  be  deeply  moved,  and  slapping  their  fore- 
heads with  the  palms  of  their  hands  will  cry  aloud  to  give  vent  to  their 
emotion.  The  mosques  cannot  accommodate  all  the  worshipers  during 
this  period,  so  some  parts  of  a  street  are  laid  with  carpets  and  rugs  where 
people  sit  listening  to  preaching.  The  last  three  days  are  the  most 
solemn.  These  people  form  different  companies,  and  each  company 
visits  from  one  mosque  to  another.  Passing  through  the  streets  the 
men  bearing  the  national  and  religious  emblems  are  followed  by  musi- 
cians playing  mournful  dirges  with  such  instruments  as  drum,  flute  and 
cymbal.  Surrounding  the  musicians  are  hundreds  of  men  marching 
with  bare  breasts,  shouting  "Hasan,  Husain !  Hasan,  Husain !"  and 
pounding  upon  their  breasts  with  bare  hands.  Following  them  is  an- 
other band  surrounding  Say-yid,  a  descendant  of  Ali,  and  all  of  them 
are  shouting  "Hasan,  Husain"  and  beating  their  breasts.  Next  in 
the  procession  comes  a  band  of  ascetic  Dervishes,  wearing  neither  hat 
nor  shoes  nor  other  garments  than  a  pair  of  pants,  when  the  weather 
is  mild.  Holding  in  their  hands  a  whip  about  two  feet  long  and  one  or 
two  inches  in  diameter,  made  of  small  iron  strands,  they  beat  their 
bare  shoulders  and  back  with  the  same  as  they  march  shouting,  "Yahu, 
Yamal-hu,"  which  are  names  of  their  god.  Following  comes  another 
band  of  Dervishes  bearing  in  one  hand  a  knotty  club  to  which  is  fastened 
nails,  bits  of  brass,  etc.  With  the  other  hand  they  beat  their  breasts  as 
they  repeat  the  cry  of  the  preceding  band.  These  worshipers  torture 
the  flesh  by  beating  it  thus  and  bruise  it  black. 

The  greatest  demonstration  of  all  occurs  on  the  last  of  the  ten 
days  at  sunrise,  the  crowds  of  former  days  gather  around  the  mosques 
to  start  again  on  marches.  On  this  day  there  are  also  fresh  recruits.  In 
front  of  the  mosque  is  a  band  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  men  and  boys  of 
13  to  40  years  of  age.  They  are  barefooted,  and  uniformed  with  a  white 


RELiGlONS;OFcPERSlA. 


419 


skirt  over  the  other  clothing  that  reaches  to  the  feet.  Held  in  the 
right  hand  before  each  one  is  a  two-edged  sword.  The  left  hand  rests 
on  the  belt  of  the  soldier  next  in  front.  The  leader  standing  at  the  head 
of  the  band,  recites  their  creed :  "Allah  is  God  and  the  only  God,  Mo- 
hammed is  the  Prophet  of  God  and  Ali  is  his  vicar."  All  the  band  re- 
peat this  creed.  Immediately  the  leader  smites  his  own  brow  with  his 
sword  and  this  act  is  imitated  by  all  his  followers.  Soon  the  faces  and 
white  clothing  of  the  men  are  red  with  blood.  Bleeding  they  go  march- 
ing through  the  streets  shouting:  "Hasan  Husain,"  and  waving  their 
swords  in  harmony  with  step  and  voice.  Fearing  that  these  zealous 
young  men  may  lose  all  regards  for  life,  and  inflict  upon  themselves 
mortal  blows,  relatives  or  friends  frequently  walk  near  with  long  sticks 
in  hand  to  hinder  them  from  such  deeds.  This  band  first  marches  to 
the  court-house  to  be  seen  by  the  governor.  Every  band  has  a  right  to 
ask  the  governor  for  the  freedom  of  some  one  prisoner,  and  these  re- 
quests are  always  granted,  no  matter  what  the  crime  of  the  imprisoned. 
These  bleeding  men  are  martyrs,  and  would  go  direct  to  heaven  if  death 
resulted  from  these  self-inflicted  wounds.  After  the  parade  ends  the 
bloody  shirts  of  these  men  are  divided  among  their  friends  and  kept  as 
holy  relics.  The  men  who  compose  these  bands  are  usually  the  most 
wicked  in  the  community.  They  go  through  these  ceremonies  for  the  re- 
mission of  sins  and  to  redeem  themselves  in  the  eyes  of  others ;  but  they 
usually  continue  in  their  wickedness  as  time  goes  on. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  last  day  in  the  procession  is  a 
richly  decorated  hearse  containing  a  coffin,  in  which  lies  a  man  repre- 
senting the  corpse  of  Hasan.  Beside  the  coffin  sits  a  woman,  the 
widow  of  Hasan,  dressed  in  sackcloth  and  her  head  covered  with  dust. 
Following  the  hearse  are  three  beautiful  Arabian  horses,  finely  saddled 
and  harnessed,  with  a  flake  of  gold,  embroidered  with  pearls,  on  their 
foreheads.  On  two  of  them  are  seated  two  girls,  representing  the 
daughters  of  martyrs.  The  tops  of  the  girls'  heads  are  covered  with 
dust  and  straw.  The  third  horse  is  riderless,  to  remind  one  of  the  miss- 
ing martyr.  Following  next,  is  a  large  number  of  women,  boys  and 
girls,  and  some  men — all  with  yokes  about  their  necks,  their  hands 
chained  behind  them,  seated  on  horses  and  mules.  These  are  to  rep- 
resent the  captives  taken  by  Yezid,  the  captain  who  killed  Husain. 
Near  them  are  men  in  helmets,  to  represent  the  soldiers  of  Yezid.  They 
are  armed  with  whips,  and  are  driving  these  women  and  children  of 
Moslems  into  captivity.  Next  in  line,  may  be  seen  false  heads  raised 
aloft  on  poles,  representing  Yezid,  Mawya  and  other  ancient  enemies 


4:20 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


of  Husain.  Boys  and  men  gather  around  them,  spitting  at  and  reviling 
them. 

Gathered,  all  the  sword  bearers,  chain  strikers,  and  the  many  men 
beating  their  breasts,  make  a  great  crowd  and  tremendous  noise.  The 
bystander  is  struck  with  horror  when  two  fanatical  bands  meet,  each 
trying  to  excel  the  other  in  self-mutilation.  Then  are  frightful  gashes 
cut;  the  thumping  of  chains  on  bruised  bodies  and  the  pounding  of 
breasts  is  heard  louder  than  before.  With  an  upward  sweep  of  the  right 
arm,  every  man  cries  in  a  loud  voice,  "Ya  Ali,  Ya  Ali !"  as  the  com- 
panies pass  each  other. 

At  4  p.  m.  on  the  last  day,  the  marching  ceases  and  the  throng  halts 
by  some  tents  pitched  in  the  middle  of  a  public  square.  The  swords  and 
chain  strikers  approach  the  tents,  and  with  a  shout  of  victory  utter  the 
names  of  Ali,  Hasan  and  Husain,  then  set  fire  to  the  tents  and  burn 
them  and  their  contents  to  the  ground.  They  imagine  that  their  enemies 
were  in  those  tents,  and  now  that  they  have  been  destroyed  it  is  a  time  of 
great  rejoicing.  The  marching  clubs  disband  and  the  active  ones  are 
soon  found  at  the  mosques,  drinking  sherbet,  a  sweet  drink,  as  a  sort 
of  reward  for  performing  their  religious  duties. 

The  last  night  is  called  watch-night,  and  many  Moslems  do  not 
even  slumber  during  the  night.  It  is  a  holy  night,  in  which  Husain 
and  other  martyrs  were  buried  in  the  tombs.  It  is  a  dishonor,  and  even 
a  sin,  for  them  to  go  to  bed  without  meditation  on  their  prophets.  In 
the  mosque  services  the  people  shout,  "Oh,  Hasan  and  Husain,  lot 
my  soul  be  a  sacrifice  for  thee."  They  believe  the  observance  of  that 
night  is  absolute  remission  of  sins ;  that  the  gates  of  heaven  are  open  to 
all  believers,  for  the  sake  of  martyrs.  Some  pious  Moslems  preserve 
(he  tears  of  that  night  in  small  bottles,  as  it  is  believed  they  will  cure 
disease  when  applied  to  the  brows  of  sick  men.  These  tears  are  prized 
as  a  most  holy  relic.  The  Musselmen  say:  "Even  David,  the  prophet, 
believed  in  the  efficacy  of  tears  when  he  wrote  in  the  Psalms,  "Put  Thou 
my  tears  in  Thy  bottle,  oh,  God." 

On  the  last  night  many  Shute  Moslems  walk  to  the  mosque  in  bare 
feet  wearing  sackcloth.  Often  a  governor  or  lord,  accompanied  by  forty 
to  one  hundred  servants,  all  barefooted,  will  be  seen  slowly  trending 
their  way  toward  a  mosque.  At  daybreak  these  solemn  ceremonies  end. 
Thus  thousands  of  people  every  year,  in  different  parts  of  the  country, 
will  slash  their  bodies  to  pieces  and  suffer  death,  believing  this  the  way 
of  obtaining  salvation. 

The  Shiahs  number  about  fifteen  million ;  eight  million  of  whom  live 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


421 


in  Persia.  The  Shiahs  or  Secrteries,  agree  with  the  Sunnis  or  tradition- 
alists., in  the  main  articles  of  belief.  They  believe  in  the  existence  and 
unity  of  God,  the  revelation  in  the  Koran,  creation,  fatalistic,  providence, 
angels,  good  and  bad,  the  prophets,  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  the 
judgment,  heaven  and  hell.  Their  creed  is,  "There  is  no  God  but  God, 
Mohammed  is  the  Apostle  of  God,  Ali  is  the  vice-regent  of  God."  The 
latter  clause  is  not  received  by  the  Sunnis,  who  hold  different  traditions. 

They  claim  that  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  prophets 
have  spoken  to  man.  and  are  mediators  between  him  and  God.  Six  of 
these  are  superior,  namely,  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses.  Jesus  and 
Mohammed ;  the  latter  being  pre-eminent.  Ali  and  his  descendants, 
through  Fatima,  are  declared  to  be  the  rightful  successors  of  Moham- 
med, the  Caliphs  of  Islam.  As  Imams  they  have  high  dignity  and  honor. 
Abubeki,  Osman  and  Omai  were  usurpers.  The  twelfth  and  last  Imam 
disappeared,  is  yet  alive  and  will  re-appear  as  the  Mahdi. 

Their  religious  rites  are  the  repetition  of  the  creed ;  prayer,  alms, 
pilgrimage  and  fasting.  By  the  proper  observance  of  these  they  believe 
that  they  receive  forgiveness  of  sins  and  a  title  to  Paradise.  The  min- 
isters of  their  religion  are  called  Mollahs.  They  are  not  regarded  as 
priests  or  mediators  in  a  ritualistic  sense,  but  are  leaders  in  worship, 
instructors,  interpreters  of  the  sacred  law  and  its  traditions.  They  are 
not  a  caste,  but  are  drawn  from  all  ranks  of  the  people.  They  receive 
a  course  of  instructions  under  the  chief  Mollahs  or  mrytehids,  consisting 
of  Persian  and  Arabic,  Mohammedan,  theology,  dialectics  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  law.   Some  students  go  to  Kerbela  for  more  advanced  study. 

The  Mollahs  are  of  various  grades ;  some  teach  the  primary  schools 
in  the  village  and  city  mosques,  others  are  leaders  of  prayers,  while 
others  still,  in  various  degrees  of  prominence,  are  interpreters  of  the 
law,  writers  of  contracts,  deeds,  etc.,  and  judges  of  civil  and  religious 
•cases  at  law.  They  decide  according  to  the  Shari,  that  is,  the  Koran 
and  its  traditions. 

One  class  of  the  Mollahs  are  the  marseyakhans,  reciters  of  the  tales 
of  the  martyrs.  They  are  eloquent  and  effective  speakers.  During  the 
revival  services  of  Muhanam  and  Ramadan,  sections  of  the  bazaars  are 
marked  off  and  crowded  with  people  to  hear  their  lamentations.  They 
are  kept  very  busy  going  from  house  to  house,  and  mosque  to  mosque. 
They  may  be  seen  hastening  on  quick  pacing  horses  to  their  next  ap- 
pointment, making  hay  while  the  sun  shines.  The  Mollahs  wear  a  pe- 
culiar dress;  their  robes  are  long  and  flowing,  bound  by  a  large  girdle 
in  thi^k  folds;  their  cloak,  QX  aba,  hangs  low,  their  turban  is  large  and 


422 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


full.  Girdle,  cloak  ancl  turban  are  often  of  light  colors,  frequently  white. 
Their  shoes  are  of  the  old  style,  sandal  like,  turned  up  at  the  toes,  and 
pointed,  and  with  heavy  heels.  A  semi-religious  order  are  the  Say-yids, 
direct  descendants  of  Mohammed.  When  we  consider  the  number  of 
children  that  Mohammed  had,  and  that  descent  through  both  male 
and  female  lines  is  counted,  we  are  not  surprised  that  after  twelve 
hundred  years  there  is  an  immense  multitude  of  them.  But  there  are  also 
many  false  Say-yids.. 

Another  peculiar  set  of  men  are  the  Dervishes.  They  are  orders 
of  religious  medicants  of  many  kinds  and  degrees.  The  ordinary  ones 
seen  in  Persia  is  a  story  teller,  with  long,  disheveled  hair,  a  close  fitting 
skull-cap,  sometimes  embroidered  with  verses  from  the  Koran,  or  the 
names  of  the.  Imams,  and  bound  with  a  fillet  with  hanging  tassels.  His 
girdle  is  a  bundle  of  rough  threads ;  his  cloak  a  fanciful  patchwork  and 
embroidered  cloth,  or  the  skin  of  a  beast  with  its  hoofs,  or  claws  hang- 
ing down.  He  has  for  his  kaeugul  or  collection  box,  a  large  Indian  nut 
shell,  curiously  carved,  and  in  his  hand  a  mace  or  cane.  This  may  be 
a  heavy  stick  of  iron,  a  tomahawk  or  an  immense  club  of  uncouth  shape 
or  with  a  knob  driven  full  of  spikes.  The  Dervishes  have  altogether 
a  very  romantic  appearance.  They  are  generally  good-natured  souls. 
They  tell  their  stories  on  the  street  corners  and  in  the  bazaars  and  col- 
lect the  pennies ;  they  squat  down  in  a  little  tent  before  the  gate  of  some 
rich  man ;  they  stroll  from  village  to  village,  and  wherever  they  are  they 
cry,  "Ya  hak,  Ya,  hak !"  (Oh  truth,  Oh  truth)  is  heard.  They  are  not 
highly  respected,  but  are  in  a  manner  looked  upon  as  holy  and  never 
ridiculed. 

A  new  convert  must  first  repeat  the  creed:  There  is  no  God  but 
God ;  Ali  is  the  vice-regent  of  God ;  After  that  he  is  circumcised.  The 
Mohammedan  boy  is  often  circumcised  on  the  eighth  day.  Sometimes 
it  is  delayed  for  some  years.  It  is  made  the  occasion  of  feasting  and 
rejoicing.  At  the  age  of  twelve  the  youth  must  begin  the  exercise  of  the 
rites  of  the  religion.  One  of  the  most  important  rites  is  prayer.  Five 
times  a  day  are  appointed  for  prayer;  dawn,  middle  of  forenoon,  noon, 
middle  of  the  afternoon  and  sunset. 

The  ablutions  are  performed  not  by  dipping  the  hands  in  a  basin, 
but  by  pouring  water  from  an  ewer,  or  from  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

The  Sunnis  and  Shiahs  wash  their  hands  differently.  One  rubs 
toward  the  elbow,  the  other  rubs  downwards.  They  can  be  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  direction  of  the  hairs  on  the  arm.  The  toes  are 
also  carefully  rubbed  with  water,  the  ears  moistened  and  the  teeth 


423 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


cleaned.  In  addition  to  the  daily  prayers  there  are  services  in  the  mosque. 
These  are  usually  held  on  Friday  or  Jurna,  the  meeting  day,  the  Sabbath 
of  Mohammedans.  There  is  a  partial  cessation  from  work  on  that  day. 
Government  offices  and  some  of  the  bazaars  are  closed,  but  the  mass 
of  the  people  continue  to  work. 

A  considerable  number  assemble  in  the  mosques.  The  Mollah,  or 
peesh-namaz,  leads  the  prayer  and  repeats  passages  from  the  Koran  in 
Arabic.  Sermons  are  not  infrequently  preached  in  the  vernacular ;  at 
times  fervent  and  eloquent,  at  other  times  deep  and  incomprehensible, 
consisting  of  the  recital  of  traditions  or  of  exhortations  of  a  practical 
nature. 

Another  religious  observance  of  prime  importance  is  fasting. 

They  gather  from  a  district  to  the  number  of  several  hundred,  a 
well  mounted  and  outfitted  caravan.  Each  one  passes  one  end  of  his 
turban  or  scarf  beneath  his  chin  and  takes  in  his  hand  a  staff  of  bitter 
almond.  As  the  bands  go  out  of  the  city  with  songs  and  music  and 
flying  banners,  their  friends  accompany  them  for  a  distance.  Shop- 
keepers and  passers-by  come  up  to  them,  kiss  their  hands  and  receive 
their  peace,  wishing  them  a  safe  journey.  Others  sacrifice  sheep  before 
the  caravan,  while  the  pilgrims  distribute  safety  money  to  the  beggars. 
Rich  men  go  with  pomp  and  display.  A  Tabriz  merchant  made  the 
pilgrimage  with  two  wives,  four  children,  one  hundred  and  fifty  ser- 
vants and  one  hundred  extra  pack  animals.  His  encampment,  when  he 
pitched  his  tent  for  the  night,  looked  like  a  small  town.  Such  a  man 
must  also  distribute  a  large  amount  of  food  to  the  poor  each  night  so 
that  his  expenses  are  very  heavy. 

When  the  pilgrims  return  from  Mecca  he  is  known  by  the  honor- 
able title  of  Hadji,  or  from  the  other  shrines  by  a  title  derived  from 
the  place  as  Kerbelai  or  Thesbredi.  If  he  dies  on  the  journey  his  spirit 
goes  directly  to  Paradise,  if  he  dies  at  the  shrine  he  is  still  more  blessed, 
for  his  body  will  rise  with  the  prophets  and  imams  on  the  day  of  resur- 
rection. In  avoiding  social  relations  with  other  races  the  Shiah  go 
beyond  the  Koran  and  their  Samni  neighbors.  "The  people  of  the 
Book,"  including  the  Jews  and  Christians,  if  not  Joroastrians,  are 
"clean,"  and  they  are  so  regarded  by  the  Arabs  and  Osmanlis.  But  the 
Persians  regard  the  touch  of  a  Christian  as  defiling.  The  touch  of  a 
Christian  makes  food  unclean  to  him.  Hence,  a  Mohammedan  will  not 
buy  meat  slaughtered  or  touched  by  a  Christian  nor  any  kind  of  moist 
food. 

Some  village  children  with  clothes  in  tatters  and  covered  with  dirt 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


42T5 


were  given  a  few  grapes  by  a  foreigner.  Their  parents  would  not  permit 
them  to  eat  of  the  fruit  until  it  was  washed.  If  the  strict  Shiah  is  under 
the  business  necessity  of  entering  a  Christian  house,  he  will  not  drink  tea 
from  his  cup  or  even  in  his  house  unless  it  is  made  by  a  Mohammedan 
servant. 

He  will  not  smoke  a  pipe  after  the  Christian  nor  accept  his  hospital- 
ity in  any  way.  Vessels,  also,  if  used  by  a  Christian  are  defiled  and 
unfit  for  use.  A  copper  vessel  may  be  purified  by  rinsing  it  with  water 
"uid  praying  over  it,  or  by  repeating  the  creed,  but  an  earthen  vessel 
must  be  broken. 

Watersellers  will  sometimes  give  Christian  travelers  a  drink  for  more 
than  the  price  of  the  mug,  then  break  it. 

They  have  been  known  even  to  break  the  bowl  from  which  water 
was  poured  out  on  a  Christian's  hand  to  wash  them.  Wash  water,  poured 
out  where  the  sun  cannot  shine,  makes  the  place  unclean  forever. 

On  such  an  occasion  the  owner  of  the  house  consults  the  mollah 
as  to  what  he  should  do.  The  latter  told  him  he  must  rebuild  the  house. 
He  therefore  demanded  the  price  of  the  house,  saying  that  he  must  tear 
it  down. 

On  account  of  this  feeling,  the  traveler  in  many  parts  of  Persia 
must  take  his  cooking  and  drinking  vessels  along  with  him,  not  knowing 
at  what  place  he  may  be  refused.  Often,  indeed,  many  of  these  difficulties 
are  overcome  by  a  little  extra  money.  A  Persian  proverb  says,  "By 
giving  money,  the  mollah  can  be  cast  out  of  the  mosque."  The  love  of 
money  overcomes  many  an  orthodox  Shiah's  prejudice.  Strict  Shiahs 
will  not  sell  a  Christian  a  Koran,  or  anything  containing  a  verse  of  it, 
nor  will  they  allow  him  even  to  touch  it.  For  this  action  they  quote 
the  verse  of  the  Koran :  "Let  none  touch  it  but  the  purified."  They 
even  prefer  that  no  translation  of  the  Koran  shall  be  made,  though  a 
Persian  interlineary  has  been  published. 

ISLAM  AND  CHRISTIANITY. 

There  is  in  Islam  no  mediator  between  God  and  man.  The  Deity,  as 
conceived  in  the  sense  of  severe  unity,  is  approached  immediately  and  di- 
rectly. He  is  known  as  the  just  and  sovereign  Ruler  of  the  universe, 
whose  special  providence  extends  to  minutest  concerns  on  earth,  and  who 
is  the  Hearer  of  prayer  and  the  judge  of  men  and  angels ; — but  not  as 
the  Christian  knows  Him,  "The  Father  in  Heaven;" — Fear  thus  with  the 
Moslem  worshiper  rather  than  love  predominating.  Jesus  is  known 
historically  as  a  Prophet;  but  He  did  not  die;  He  was  taken  up  into 


436 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Heaven.  Sin  may  be  forgiven ;  but  it  is  so  by  the  mere  act  of  God — not 
for  any  merit's  sake  of  a  Redeemer.  And  the  sanctifying  work  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  is  ignored  altogether.  Islam  has  not  anything  to  put  in 
place  of  these  grand  influences  of  grace  and  love  by  which  the  Christian's 
life  is  molded  and  his  heart  constrained.  Next  as  to  ceremonial.  Here 
everything  is  laid  down  by  rule,  and  hence  the  tendency  to  mechanical 
performance.  The  round  of  ritual  is  prescribed  and  stereotyped.  Prayer 
is  divinely  appointed  to  be  said,  the  fixed  rule  of  prostration  and  of  genu- 
flexions, at  five  stated  periods  of  the  day.  One  month  for  fasting  every 
year  is  obligatory  upon  all,  and  is  observed  with  singular  rigor,  day  by 
day,  from  early  dawn  to  sunset.  The  discipline  is  undoubtedly  a  severe 
exercise  of  self-denial,  and  of  devotion  to  the  faith,  but  its  virtue  is 
much  neutralized  by  the  indulgence  allowed  from  sunset  again  till  the 
dawn  of  day,  during  which  period  restriction  of  every  kind  is  withdrawn. 
Of  similar  tendency  is  the  ordinance  of  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  and  the 
neighboring  holy  places — the  tour  terminated  by  the  slaying  of  victims 
(the  Bairam  festival  of  the  Turks) ;  a  sacrificial  custom  like  that  of  the 
Jews,  but  shorn  of  its  Mosaic  lesson.  This  pilgrimage  is  enjoined  on  all 
from  every  land  who  are  possessed  of  the  means  to  enter  on  it,  all  these 
solemnities  are  observed  as  works  of  merit  in  themselves,  and  also,  no 
doubt,  by  many  as  means  of  religious  elevation  and  improvement ;  but 
the  tendency  with  the  great  mass  of  the  Moslem  world  is  towards  the 
former  end  alone.  Prayer,  fasting  and  pilgrimage,  are  services  working 
out  the  salvation  of  a  worshiper.  No  true  believer  can  be  lost,  but  if  his 
bad  deeds  outweigh  the  good  he  must  expiate  the  same  in  the  life  to 
come.  On  the  other  hand,  Heaven  is  drawn  in  the  Koran  in  coloring 
of  the  most  worldly  and  material  hues.  There  are  black  eyed  virgins 
for  wives,  rich  couches  and  carpets,  fountains  and  cup  bearers  of  wine, 
that  exhilarates  with  inebriating,  pictures,  the  sensuous  tendencies  of 
which  must  be  to  deaden  the  spiritual  aspirations  of  the  worshiper. 

We  turn  now  to  the  moral  and  social  aspects  of  Islam.  The  relations 
established  by  the  Koran  between  the  sexes,  will  not  compare  with  those 
of  the  Pentateuch,  much  less  of  the  Gospel.  Besides  the  privilege  of 
having  four  free  wives  at  a  time,  and  of  having  as  concubines  any  num- 
ber of  slaves  he  likes,  the  Moslem  husband  has,  by  divine  law,  the  power 
of  divorcing  the  former  at  any  moment  and  without  any  reason  assigned. 
He  is  thus  at  liberty  to  "vary"  even  his  married  wives  at  his  mere  caprice 
and  fancy.  Social  and  domestic  influences  happily  correct  largely  the 
abuse  of  this  power.  Nevertheless,  that  such  is  the  license  given  by  their 
scripture  cannot  but  have  a  deteriorating  effect  on  the  moral  habitude 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


427 


of  the  people.  Even  in  Mecca,  for  example,  the  citidal  of  the  faith,  there 
is  enough  to  show  the  scandalous  ebb  to  which,  in  some  quarters,  with- 
out any  transgression  of  the  law,  the  sacred  institution  of  marriage  has 
fallen. 

The  jealous  temperament  of  the  Prophet  provided  restrictions  on  the 
liberty  of  women,  not  uncongenial  to  his  followers,  but  materially  affect- 
ing the  position  of  the  sex.  They  may  be  chastised  and  they  may  be 
shut  up  in  seclusion.   They  are  forbidden  to  appear  abroad  without  the 


DR.  ADAMS.  I.  YOHANNAN. 

veil  and  stringent  conditions  are  enjoined  as  to  the  admission  into  the 
rooms  of  any  but  the  nearest  relatives.  All  these  depressing  and  un- 
friendly influences  notwithstanding,  woman,  no  doubt,  retains  by  virtue 
of  the  remedial  power  of  domestic  life,  a  dominant,  though  it  may  be 
an  uncertain  position  within  the  harem  or  zenana;  but  beyond  its 
bounds  her  influence  is  well  nigh  unknown.  She  is  shut  out  from  all 
the  walks  of  outer  life,  and  from  all  those  sweet  offices  of  mercy  and 


428 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


philanthropy  to  which — but  for  the  barrier  of  the  Moslem  revelation- 
she  might,  like  her  Jewish  and  Christian  sisters,  devote  her  life. 

Nor  is  there  hope  of  any  effective  amelioration.  The  law  of  the 
Koran  is  not,  like  the  wide  and  adapted  inculcations  of  the  Gospel,  fitted 
for  all  time  and  for  every  onward  movement  of  mankind.  Its  rule  is  hard 
and  fast,  a  set  of  rigid  ordinances  incapable  of  change  and  relaxation. 
And  thus,  so  long  as  the  Koran  prevails,  woman  remains  secluded,  her 
soft  and  purifying  power  lost  upon  the  other  sex  outside  the  walls  of  the 
harem.  It  is  the  same  with  slavery,  the  curse  of  Moslem  lands.  It  can- 
not be  eliminated  from  the  law  which  the  Musselmen  hold  Divine ;  it 
must  continue  to  hold  its  place  as  an  institution,  casting  a  blight  upon  the 
proud  slave  holder  sadder  even  thart  on  the  poor  victim  of  his  pleasure. 

It  remains  only  now  to  notice  the  contrast  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Gospel  in  the  sphere  of  politics — namely,  in  the  unity  of  the  secular  and 
spiritual  elements  forming  the  Moslem  theory  of  government.  Church 
and  state  are  integrally  one.  The  head  of  the  state  is  also  head  of  the 
faith,  and  the  fusion  runs  throughout.  The  functions  are  synonymous. 
With  the  armies  of  the  Islam,  for  instance,  which  overran  the  world, 
the  Ameer,  or  chief  commander,  as  such,  led  also  the  prayers  of  his  force. 
The  spiritual  function  was  badge  also  of  secular  and  military  suprem- 
acy. In  theory,  Islam  is  a  theocracy,  originating  in  the  Caliphate  or 
succession  from  the  Prophet ;  and  when  the  Caliphate  passed  away, 
breaking  up  into  separate  politics,  the  head  of  each  of  which  is  at  once 
its  secular  and  its  ecclesiastical  ruler.  The  result  of  such  a  system  is 
that  the  chief  must  of  necessity  be  absolute  sovereign — a  despot  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  term.  His  power  is  only  limited  by  the  patience 
of  the  people,  though,  also,  in  a  manner  by  the  Tutuas  (theological  and 
legal  deliverances)  of  the  Ulema  and  Doctors,  which  as  vice-regent  of 
the  Prophet  the  sovereign  is  bound  to  follow.  The  outcome  of  all  this 
is  that  freedom  in  the  political  sense  of  the  word,  is  unknown.  Liberal 
institutions  in  which  the  people  can  take  their  share,  and  through  which 
they  may  give  effect  to  their  collective  wish,  are  altogether  foreign  to  the 
genius  of  Islam,  and  under  the  regime  of  the  Koran  beyond  the  scope  of 
expectation.  In  fine,  the  fatal  demerit  of  Islam,  viewed  in  its  social  and 
political  aspect  is  that,  tied  and  encrusted  round  as  it  is  by  the  text  of 
the  Koran,  progress  and  adaptation  to  varying  circumstances  are  unat- 
tainable institutions  based  on  the"  sanctions  of  a  revelation  held  to  be 
divinely  given  are  unalterable;  they  present  a  bar  impassable  to  social 
and  political  amelioration.    Elsewhere  the  world  may  advance;  Islam, 


RELIGIONS  OFj! PERSIA. 


429 


with  its  probity  and  law,  as  Mohammed  left  them  twelve  centuries  ago, 
remains  the  same. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  the  difference  of  Christian  teach- 
ing in  respect  of  various  points  enumerated  above.  They  will,  no  doubt, 
have  suggested  themselves  to  the  reader,  who  may  have  been  kindly 
giving  his  attention  as  he  went  along.  For  example,  the  Gospel,  though 
holding  the  wife  subject  to  the  husband,  has  not  the  less  implanted 
principles  which  now  culminate  in  the  elevation  of  the  sex  to''  a  position 
of  virtual  equality.  The  social  rules  of  the  Bible  possess  a  plastic  virtue 
suitable  for  every  race  and  clime  and  time.  In  place  of  the  veil  and 
restrictions  on  social  intercourse,  it  simply  enjoins  modest  apparel  and 
''chaste  conversation."  And  so,  while  altogether  shut  out  from  her 
legitimate  influence  on  Moslem  society,  woman  takes  her  place  with  us 
in  all  the  walks  of  mercy  and  benevolence.  She  sheds  the  light  and  grace 
upon  the  world  which  the  female  sex  alone  can  give  and  the  absence  of 
which  keeps  Moslem  life  outside  the  harem  austere  and  dark. 

Not  less  marked  is  the  contrast  to  the  political  environment  of  Is- 
lam. The  doctrine  of  a  common  Father  in  heaven  has  opened  the  way 
to  universal  freedom.  The  captive  as  a  "brother  beloved"  at  last  is  set 
at  liberty;  while  the  ordinance  of  slavery  must  prevail  so  long  as  the 
scripture  of  Mohammed  is  law.  So  also  with  political  progress.  Caesar 
and  the  church  are  free  to  go  each  its  own  way,  and  thus  advance  is  pos- 
sible on  either  side.  The  Gospel  sheds  its  approval  on  every  step  of 
moral  and  social  progress,  if  it  did  not  indeed  actually  point  out  the  way 
thereto.  ' 

And  finally,  instead  of  the  cold  lesson  of  morality  which  is  all  that 
Islam  offers,,  with  its  fixed  round  of  prayer,  fasting  and  pilgrimage,  we 
have  the  warm  constraining  influences  of  a  faith  and  love  which  the  per- 
sonal sacrifice  of  a  Redeemer  alone  can  give. 

"In  thus  was  manifested  the  love  of  God  towards  us,  because  that 
God  sent  His  only  begotten  Son  into  the  world,  that  we  might  live 
through  Him. 

"Herein  is  love,  not  that  we  love  God,  but  that  He  loved  us  and 
sent  His  Son  to  be  the  propitiation  for  our  sins. 

"Beloved,  if  God  so  loved  us,  we  ought  also  to  love  one  another." 

In  this  consists  the  sovereign  virtue  of  the  Gospel.  We  should 
search  in  vain  for  like  virtue  anywhere  in  the  Koran  or  in  the  teaching 
of  Mohammed. 

It  does  not  teach  the  law  of  love  as  the  basis  of  morality;  it  does 
not  believe  in  the  Fatherhood  of  God  or  in  the  brotherhood  of  man. 


43o 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Love,  which  is  the  leaven  of  all  human  relations,  is  practically  eliminated 
and  Mohammedanism,  thus  failing  to  call  forth  so  essential  a  part  of 
man's  nature,  must  be  condemned. 

Christianity  pleads:  "God  is  love,  trust  Him;"  Mohammedanism 
commands  :  "God  is  will ;  obey  him."  Mohammedanism  is  sterile,  bar- 
ren and  irksome  in  its  principles.  Christianity  is  fruitful  and  permeating 
a  yoke  that  is  easy,  a  burden  that  is  light.  The  Christian  God  is  in  us 
and  with  us  and  it  is  the  delight  of  His  children  to  breathe  out  their 
souls  in  prayer  to  Him. 

Mohammedanism  was  born  in  the  Orient;  was  the  product  of 
Oriental  ideas,  and  has  never  ventured  beyond  the  Orient  in  permanent 
conquest.  Yet  the  part  it  has  played  in  history  cannot  but  give  rise 
to  the  double  question:  Is  Mohammedanism  of  Divine  origin?  Has  its 
influence  on  the  whole  been  for  good  or  evil?  These  are  not  idle  ques- 
tions, and  upon  their  answers  hang  solutions  to  many  more  important 
problems.  If  not  to  the  supernatural,  to  what  or  whom  can  we  ascribe 
its  rapid  inception  and  growth,  its  miraculous  unifying  power  as  ex- 
erted over  a  thousand  warring  Arab  tribes?  To  what  can  we  ascribe 
its  dominions  over  two  hundred  millions  of  souls  ? 

Mohammedanism  is  essentially  a  religion  Qf  form;  hence  the  desciple 
of  Islam  does  not  thank  God  for  past  blessings  or  implore  His  protection 
for  the  future,  though  he  rehearses  his  prayers  ostentatiously  five  times  a 
day.  Islamism  means  submission;  hence  the  efficacy  of  the  service  is 
in  the  number  of  times  the  nemaz  or  prayer  is  said.  Before  worship  a 
preparatory  service  of  abtest,  or  ablution  with  cold  water  is  obligatory. 
If  this  were  not  done  in  strict  conformity  with  the  established  usage,  the 
subsequent  prayers  would  be  of  no  avail. 

If  a  Mohammedan  is  late,  he  may  at  any  time  join  with  the  con- 
gregation in  the  service,  but  the  blessing  to  be  obtained  is  deemed  far 
inferior  to  what  would  have  resulted  had  he  been  on  time.  Tradition 
says  that  a  follower  excused  himself  to  the  Prophet  on  the  ground  of 
saving  his  friend  from  drowning  at  the  time  of  devotions,  and  hoped 
that  he  would  be  blessed  for  the  kindly  act,  as  well  as  those  who  were 
early  at  prayer.  The  stern  Prophet  would  not  accept  the  apology. 
"Though  you  had  camels  enough  to  fill  the  road  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
all  loaded  with  jewels,  and  should  give  the  cargo  to  the  poor,  the  bless- 
ings would  not  equal  those  of  promptness  at  prayer.  Should  you  commit 
the  whole  Koran  to  memory  and  repeat  it  twice  every  night,  the  bless- 
ings received  would  not  equal  those  of  beginning  nemaz  with  the 
imam  (priest).    Should  you  kill  all  the  enemies  of  Islam,  the  great  re- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


431 


wards  would  not  compare  with  those  of  him  who  is  prompt  at  the  be- 
ginning of  prayer.  If  by  a  word  the  heavens  and  earth  could  become 
paper,  the  sea  turned  into  ink,  and  all  angels  stand  as  scribes,  yet  they 
would  be  unable  to  write  all  the  blessings  you  may  enjoy  for  beginning 
prayers  with  the  "imam."  The  Mohammedans  are  deeply  conscious 
of  all  these  warnings  of  their  Prophet,  and,  though  not  "in  spirit  and 
truth,"  yet  they  worship  according  to  their  forms  most  faithfully. 

The  interior  of  the  mosque  is  considered  most  holy;  consequently, 
all  the  people  take  off  their  shoes  as  they  step  within  the  shrine,  and  go 
through  a  series  of  pious  movements.  The  religion  of  "the  Prophet" 
keenly  hostile  to  pagan  idolatry,  forbids  pictures,  images  or  any  repre- 
sentation of  the  human  form  in  their  houses  of  worship.  On  the  walls, 
however,  are  many  inscriptions  from  the  Koran,  with  censers  of  burning 
oil  suspended  from  the  dome. 

The  floor  is  beautiful  with  the  richest  rugs  of  Oriental  art,  upon 
which  the  suppliants  prostrate  themselves  in  their  devotions,  with 
twenty-six  postures,  each  following  the  movements  of  the  imam,  rising 
and  bowing  simultaneously  with  almost  military  precision.  While  at 
prayer,  certain  acts,  such  as  looking  around,  striking  at  a  fly  to  kill  it, 
raising  a  foot  from  the  floor,  scratching  more  than  three  times  in  one 
place  on  the  body,  laughing  loud  enough  to  be  heard,  must  be  refrained 
from,  as  they  would  destroy  the  efficacy  of  the  devotions. 

The  imam,  who  performs  the  devotional  exercises,  reads  from  the 
Koran,  and  then  descends  to  mingle  with  the  many  worshipers,  placing 
himself  on  a  level  with  the  common  people.  On  Friday,  however,  the 
holy  day  of  the  Mohammedans,  the  devotions  are  conducted  with  un- 
usual pomp  and  ceremony;  the  Koran  is  recited,  prayers  are  said,  and 
generally  a  sermon  preached. 

The  Koran,  the  groundwork  of  Islam,  is  divided  into  one  hundred 
and  fourteen  suras,  or  chapters,  originally  written  "on  bits  of  stone, 
leather,  thigh  bones"  and  all  sorts  of  material.  After  the  death  of  Mo- 
hammed these  scattered  materials  were  collected,  and  supplemented  by 
the  Arab's  retentive  memory,  they  were  put  together  regardless  of  time 
or  subject,  one  chapter  following  another,  without  even  chronological  se- 
quence. Thus,  while  the  teachings  of  the  Koran  are  sufficiently  plain, 
yet  this  manifest  lack  of  logical  order  renders  it  of  all  books  the  least 
intelligible.  But  the  Koran  is  not  the  whole  of  Islamism.  There  are 
traditions  which  are  as  powerful  as,  and  even  more  respected  than,  the 
Koran  itself.  When  there  is  nothing  in  the  Koran  to  meet  an  issue,  the 
Moslem  would  draw  upon  the  oral  laws  of  the  Prophet  on  the  basis  of 


432 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


what  Mohammed  said,  what  he  did,  and  what  he  did  not  say,  or  what  he 
allowed  others  to  say  unrebuked. 

The  first  doctrine  which  we  meet  in  the  Mohammedan  creed  is 
this:  "La  Ilaha  Ilia  'Llahu  Muhammadum  Rasulu  Llahi"  "There  is 
no  God  but  God :  Mohammed  is  the  prophet  of  God."  Mohammedans 
ascribe  ninety-nine  names  or  titles  to  God,  among  which  some  of  the 
principal  are,  the  Merciful,  the  Gracious,  the  Master,  the  Holy,  the 
Creator,  the  Faithful,  the  Pardoner,  the  Wrathful,  the  Provider  of  daily 
bread,  the  All-wise,  the  Just,  the  King,  the  Great,  the  Exalter,  the  Glori- 
ous, the  Lover,  the  Witness,  the  Truth,  the  Almighty,  the  First,  the 
Last,  the  Pure,  the  Light,  the  Guide,  the  Patient  One,  etc.  Mohammed 
taught  that  God,  most  high,  created  the  seven  days  of  the  week ;  on  Sun- 
day He  created  the  gates  of  the  highest  heaven ;  on  Monday  the  seven 
stories  of  heaven ;  on  Tuesday  He  constructed  the  seven  stories  of  the 
earth ;  on  Wednesday  He  made  darkness ;  on  Thursday  He  created  the 
produce  of  the  earth  and  all  that  is  in  it;  on  Friday  He  made  the  sun, 
moon  and  stars,  and  caused  the  seven  celestial  spheres  to  revolve ;  and 
on  the  sixth  day  He  created  the  whole  world.  One  day,  however,  of 
that  upper  world  is  said  to  be  equal  to  one  thousand  years. 

One  day  while  Mohammed  was  talking'  with  some  of  his  followers 
the  archangel,  Gabriel,  appeared  to  them  in  disguise  of  a  very  tall  and 
strong  man  clothed  in  white,  who  for  their  information  and  instruction 
said  to  the  Prophet :  "O,  Mohmamed,  tell  me  about  Islam."  Mohammed 
replied:  "Islam  is  that  thou  shalt  bear  witness,  that  there  is  no  God 
but  God  and  that  Mohammed  is  the  Apostle  of  God ;  second,  to  offer 
five  prayers  each  day;  third,  to  give  alms;  fourth,  to  perform  pilgrimages 
to  Mecca;  fifth,  to  fast  during  Ramazan."  The  angel  continued:  "I 
accept  this  as  true.  Now  tell  me  about  the  faith."  Mohammed  said : 
"It  is  to  believe  in  God  and  His  angels  and  in  His  books  and  in  His 
messenger;  in  the  last  day  and  in  fate  regarding  good  and  evil."  The 
angel  replied:  "I  accept  this  also  as  true;  now  tell  me  about  well  do- 
ing." Mohammed  answered:  "It  is  to  serve  God  as  if  thou  didst  see 
Him,  even  though  thou  see  Him  not,  for  indeed  He  seeth  thee." 

Mohammedans  hold,  that  from  the  very  beginning  God  taught  his 
servants  by  direct  inspiration,  that  Adam,  Enoch,  Noah,  Abraham. 
Moses  and  Jesus,  as  well  as  a  multitude  of  the  prophets,  were  sent  by 
Him  as  occasion  required ;  some  for  all  men  and  some  for  individual 
tribes,  that  they  might  guide  men  to  God  and  reveal  His  will. 

The  number  of  books  which  have  been  revealed  to  the  prophets 
is  103.    Out  of  this  number  ten  were  intrusted  to  Adam,  fifty  to  Seth, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


433 


thirty  to  Abraham,  ten  to  Moses,  one  to  David,  one  to  Jesus  and  one  to 
Mohammed,  and  they  believe  when  one  revelation  became  lost  or  cor- 
rupted a  new  message  was  sent  down.  The  last  of  all  the  prophets, 
according  to  them,  is  Mohammed,  and  hence  the  final  and  most  perfect 
revelation  is  that  contained  in  the  Koran,  and  they  hold  that  it  is  in- 
cumbent upon  all  men,  therefore,  to  accept  their  creed  or  they  will  be 
cast  into  eternal  punishment.  Mohammedans  believe  that  the  entire 
Koran  was  dictated  to  Mohammed  by  Gabriel,  and  is  a  literal  copy  of 
what  was  written  ages  before  the  creation  of  the  world  by  Divine  decree 
upon  the  everlasting  tablet  in  heaven.  With  regard  to  creation  of  man 
the  Mohammedans  believe  that  Adam  was  created  in  a  garden  in 
heaven;  but  God  sent  an  angel  to  obtain  a  handfull  of  earth, 
of  which  the  body  of  Adam  was  then  made.  When  the  spirit  entered 
this  body  God  ordered  all  the  angels  to  worship  Adam.  All  obeyed 
except  Iblis,  who  was  thereupon  condemned  to  hell-fire  and  became 
known  as  Satan.  Eve  was  created  from  Adam's  rib,  and  when  they  ate 
of  the  forbidden  fruit,  which  they  hold  was  wheat,  they  were  cast  down 
from  the  heavenly  paradise  and  fell  to  the  earth.  When  Adam  fell,  he  kept 
on  weeping  for  his  offence  for  three  hundred  years,  so  that  from  his 
tears  rivers  began  to  flow  and  on  their  banks  there  grew  dates  and  nut 
trees.  Every  tear  of  Eve,  which  fell  into  the  sea,  became  a  pearl  and 
diamond,  and  then  God  commanded  Adam  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca  and  there  he  met  Eve  and  recognized  her  because  during  the 
fall  Eve  was  cast  in  one  direction  and  Adam  another. 

The  doctrine  of  original  sin  finds  no  place  in  Mohammedan  theology, 
although  they  hold  that  all  men  are  descendants  of  Adam  and  Eve — 
that  Adam  did  not  sin,  but  simply  erred.  They  believe  in  the  multitudin- 
ous existence  of  the  angels,  as  having  all  been  created  ages  before 
creation  by  God,  from  fire,  and  being  superior,  therefore,  to  man.  They 
are,  however,  capable  of  falling  into  sin,  and  are  appointed  to  various 
offices ;  are  of  different  rank,  and  God  uses  many  of  them  as  messengers 
to  mankind.  In  the  highest  rank  are  those  nearest  to  God ;  these  are 
the  four  supporters  of  His  throne.  On  the  judgment  day  four  more 
will  be  appointed  to  this  service,  because  it  is  written  in  the  Koran  that 
the  eight  angels  will  support  the  throne  of  God  on  the  last  day.  An 
angel  predominates  in  hell,  and  under  his  authority  are  nineteen  others, 
appointed  to  aid  him  in  maintaining  authority.  They  are  preserved 
from  being  injured  by  the  flames,  as  they  have  a  seal  of  divinity  impressed 
upon  their  foreheads,  with  the  inscription,  "There  is  no  God  but  God ; 
Mohammed  is  the  Apostle  of  God." 


134 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Five  times  a  day  there  is  a  solemn  call  which  sounds  forth  from  the 

mosque  to  prayer  in  these  words :  "Assahu  Akbar !"  (God  is  most  great) 
repeated  four  times  in  a  loud  tone  of  voice,  then  in  a  lower  tone.  The 
caller  says,  repeating  each  clause  separately  twice,  "I  bear  witness  that 
there  is  no  God  but  God ;  I  bear  witness  that  Mohammed  is  the  Apostle 
of  God."  Then  raising  his  voice  once  more,  he  again  recites  these  two 
clauses  twice,  and  then  proceeding  in  the  same  tone  he  cries,  "Come  to 
prayer,  come  to  prayer!  Come  to  the  refuge,  come  to  the  refuge! 
God  is  most  great,  God  is  most  great !  There  is  no  God  but  God !"  In 
the  morning  call,  he  adds :    "Prayer  is  better  than  sleep." 

They  pray  five  times  a  day — in  the  morning  before  sunrise,  at  noon, 
before  sunset,  during  the  twilight,  after  sun-set,  when  night  has  com- 
menced. At  these  specified  times  Musselmen,  wherever  they  may  be, 
in  the  street  or  in  the  house,  spread  their  rugs  out  upon  the  ground  and, 
facing  Mecca,  recite  the  set  form  of  prayer  in  Arabic,  claiming  that 
to  be  the  language  of  paradise. 

The  Prophet  commanded  that  the  children  should  be  directed 
to  offer  the  appointed  prayers  at  the  age  of  7,  and  that  they  should  be 
beaten  if  they  failed  to  comply.  The  public  prayers  in  the  mosque  are 
conducted  by  a  priest  or  leader,  who  turns  his  face  toward  Mecca.  Be- 
hind him  rank  after  rank  stand  on  a  spot  which  is  marked  out  tor  the 
worshiper,  space  enough  for  each  to  enable  him  to  prostrate  himself. 
Before  a  man  spreads  his  rug,  he  takes  off  his  shoes,  carefully  performs 
the  ceremony  of  washing  his  hands  and  ears  and  face,  water  being  always 
near  at  hand.  In  case  there  is  no  water,  sand  is  used.  They  all  have  to 
cross  a  bridge  after  death,  the  unrighteous  will  fall  down  to  the  lowest 
hell;  this  bridge  is  as  thin  as  a  hair  and  is  sharper  than  a  sword. 

Islam  teaches  that  God  alone,  the  Almighty  Creator  and  Preserver, 
the  Master  and  Judge  of  all  creation  shall  be  worshiped,  but  of  God's 
infinite  holiness  and  love,  Mohammedanism  knows  nothing. 

Mohammed  said:  "Righteousness  for  you  is  to  believe  in  God  and 
the  last  day,  the  angels,  the  books,  the  prophets,  and  give  your  wealth 
to  the  poor,  to  the  beggars  and  to  those  in  bondage."  All  Mohamme- 
dans believe  they  will  be  saved  through  Mohammed's  intercession.  Mo- 
hammedanism teaches  that  there  is  no  similitude  whatever  between  God 
and  man,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  there  should  be.  They  confess  that  they 
are  sinners,  but  by  inference  and  conclusions  from,  the  rest  of  their 
teachings  we  see  that  they  maintain  the  idea  that  God  is  Himself  the 
author  of  all  their  sinful  acts. 

Again,  from  the  Koran  and  tradition,  it  is  evident  that  Mohammed 


435 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


regarded  sin  as  a  mere  external  pollution,  and  capable  of  being  washed 
off  by  performance  of  certain  rites.  Five  prayers  are  the  means  of  wiping 
out  the  sin,  to  a  great  extent,  and  pilgrimage  and  alms-giving  is  needed 
to  take  away  the  guilt.  Mohammedanism  teaches  nothing  for  atonement 
of  sin.  The  Shiahs  generally  believe  that  Hasan  and  Husain  died  as 
their  redeemers. 

Tradition  speaks  on  the  subject  of  the  reward  in  the  next  world 
as  follows  :  In  paradise  there  are  palaces  made  of  pearls.  In  each  palace 
there  are  seventy  abodes  made  of  rubies ;  in  each  abode  there  are  seventy 
houses  of  emerald ;  in  every  house,  a  harem ;  in  every  harem,seventy  beds ; 
of  various  colors ;  on  every  bed,  an  houri.  In  every  house  there  are 
seventy  tables ;  on  each  table  there  are  seventy  kinds  of  food ;  in  each 
house  there  are  seventy  slave  girls,  and  every  morning  when  he  is  anxious 
for  food  the  Musselman  is  given  all  that  he  desires ;  besides,  their  beauty 
shall  be  as  moon  in  the  night ;  their  vessels  and  combs  shall  be  of  gold 
and  silver.  Every  one  of  them  shall  have  two  wives.  Every  man  among 
the  people  of  paradise  shall  surely  have  500  houries,  4,000  virgins,  8,000 
divorced  women,  and  two  large-eyed  houries  shall  sing  to  him  with 
charming  voices.  The  inhabitants  of  paradise  have  horses  and  camels, 
and  there  the  bridles  and  saddles  are  of  rubies ;  and  if  any  man  among  the 
inhabitants  of  paradise  should  desire  children,  they  shall  be  born  to  him 
in  one  single  day.  The  people  of  paradise  are  smooth  and  beardless, 
white  and  curly-haired ;  they  shall  be  thirty  years  of  age,  as  was  Adam 
when  he  was  created ;  their  height  shall  be  sixty  cubits. 

If  a  woman  of  paradise  should  come  down  to  the  earth  she  would 
illuminate  and  fill  the  space  between  heaven  and  earth  with  her  perfume. 
The  people  of  paradise  shall  be  waited  upon  with  seventy  dishes  of  gold, 
each  dish  shall  have  a  different  color;  they  shall  have  in  addition  the 
liver  of  the  fish ;  for  them  shall  be  slaughtered  the  ox.  The  tales  which 
Mohammed  told  of  the  delights  of  paradise  were  equaled  by  the  ghastly 
horrors  with  which  he  surrounded  the  future  state  of  all  who  should 
reject  his  claims. 

It  is  believed  that  all  Musselmen,  even  those  guilty  of  the  most 
atrocious  crimes,  after  a  period  will  be  ultimately  in  some  manner  de- 
livered from  hell  and  admitted  to  paradise,  there  to  enjoy  various  degrees 
of  that  pleasure  peculiar  to  their  carnal  nature. 

Prophet  Mohammed  told  his  people  that  the  earth  was  originally 
made  out  of  the  foam  of  a  whale  which  God  created.  The  earth  consists 
like  heaven  of  seven  stories,  and  the  whole  mass  rests  between  the  horns 
of  a  bull.   This  animal  has  no  less  than  four  thousand  horns.   The  dis- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


43? 


ance  between  any  two  of  these  horns  is  five  hundred  years'  journey. 
Sis  feet  rests  upon  a  fish  which  swims  in  water  forty  years'  journey 
leep.  Koran  teaches  the  virgin  Mary  is  the  sister  of  Aaron  and  the 
laughter  of  Amram.  Certainly  Islam  is  an  anti-Christian  faith,  a  Christ- 
ess  creed,  and  it  has  preserved  in  the  life  and  character  of  its  founder 
in  enduring  principle  of  degradation. 

The  Koran  denies  trinity,  the  divine  sonship  of  our  Redeemer,  His 
itoning  death,  and  His  mediatorial  office.  Mohammed  taught  his  fol- 
owers  that  Christ  had  prophesied  of  his  coming  when  promising  the 
lisciples  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Christ  Jesus  tells  us  that  God 
s  our  heavenly  Father,  loving,  holy  and  just.  Mohammed  teaches  his 
ollowers  that  God  is  our  Master,  arbitrary  and  despotic,  favoring 
vhom  He  will  and  leading  astray  whom  He  will.  The  Bible  informs 
is  that  man  was  originally  created  in  God's  image,  that  he  was  once 
loly,  but  is  now  fallen  from  his  true  nature.  Yet  God  loves  him  and  has 
Drovided  a  way  for  his  restoration  to  peace  and  full  realization  of  his 
oeing  the  child  of  God.  The  Koran  on  the  other  hand  tells  us  that  man 
vas  created  weak  and  that  he  is  and  always  has  been  separated  from  his 
Creator  by  a  great  gulf;  that  his  nature  is  just  and  ever  will  be.  Man  is 
in  no  sense  a  child  of  God,  but  he  is  a  slave.  We  Christians  believe 
that  sin  is  the  transgression  of  the  eternal  moral  law,  which  is  a  necessary 
part  of  the  divine  nature,  hence  sin  is  contrary  to  man's  original  nature 
as  a  being  made  in  God's  image  and  likeness.  Christ  tells.  His  disciples 
that  the  most  tolerable  of  all  possible  kinds  of  doom  is  being  left  in  a 
state  of  eternal  sin,  eternal  alienation  or  estrangement  from  God  and 
to  all  that  is  good  and  true  and  noble,  and  to  all  that  is  pure  and  unselfish. 
Mohammedans  hold  that  sin  is  the  breach  of  certain  arbitrary  rules  laid 
down  by  God  for  man  to  obey.  The  Bible  informs  us  that  salvation  con- 
sists in  the  deliverance  from  the  love  and  power  of  sin  and  in  the  restora- 
tion unto  our  first  nature,  and  of  bringing  our  whole  nature  in  harmony 
with  God.  According  to  Mohammedan  faith  salvation  means  escape 
from  the  punishment  of  sin,  while  their  mystics  would  explain  the  word 
as  signifying  deliverance  from  mental  ignorance  regarding  God.  We 
Christians  believe  that  redemption  is  to  be  obtained  freely  through  the 
atonement  wrought  out  for  us  by  Christ  Himself.  Musselmen  maintain 
that  they  will  be  made  righteous  by  their  works  or  through  Mohammed's 
intercession,  while  others  maintain  that  Hasan's  and  Husain's  death 
were  the  atonement  for  sin.  We  Christians  look  forward  for  an  eternal 
happiness  and  for  many  mansions  of  our  heavenly  Father's  home,  where 
nothing  that  defiles  can  enter,  but  where  we  shall  know  even  as  we  are 


4  It  8 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


known  and  shall  be  renewed  in  the  image  of  our  Creator  and  our  Re- 
deemer. Mohammed  promised  his  followers  a  heaven  of  carnal  delight 
and  sensual  pleasure,  etc.  If  we  believe  that  only  through  Christ  can 
God,  the  Father,  be  properly  known  to  us,  that  only  through  Christ's 
atoning  death  can  we  hope  for  salvation,  that  only  through  union  with 
Him  can  we  possess  the  true  life  which  He  came  to  give  us,  then  it  must 
be  plain  that  the  Mohammedan  religion  is  entirely  out  of  the  question. 

Islam  as  a  religion  is  not  true,  it  has  not  come  from  God.  It  does 
not  and  cannot  satisfy  the  needs  of  the  human  heart,  it  does  not  reveal 
God  in  His  Divine  Fatherhood,  in  His  love,  His  justice  and  His  holiness. 
It  does  not  show  man  what  his  own  original  nature  was,  nor  reveal 
to  him  what  sin  is  and  how  to  escape  it.  Islam  is  an  anti-Christian  creed. 
It  is  opposed  to  all  true  progress,  whether  moral  or  intellectual,  political 
or  religious.  This  being  the  case,  then  Mohammedanism  cannot  take 
the  place  of  Christianity  with  advantage  to  any  section  of  the  human 
race.  Mohammed  is  in  every  way  unfit  to  be  an  ideal  of  a  human  being. 
But  Christianity  has  a  duty  to  the  Musselman,  one  which  we  cannot 
shirk  without  incurring  serious  responsibility.  We  must  not  be  content 
to  leave  them  alone  in  their  darkness  and  bigotry.  If  we  would  we 
cannot  altogether  do  so,  brought  in  contact  with  the  great  Mohammedan 
world  as  we  are  at  the  present  time.  If  we  would  ask  what  our  duty 
to  the  Musselman  is,  our  divine  Lord  gives  us  a  very  clear  answer ;  "Go 
ye  and  make  all  nations  disciples,  baptising  them  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost."  Christ  died  for  them  as  well  as  for 
the  heathen  and  for  ourselves,  and  He  has  His  own  chosen  among  all 
nations.  To  us  is  committed  the  ministry  of  reconciliation,  the  sacred 
duty  of  calling  the  followers  of  the  Arabian  anti-Christ  to  the  foot  of  the 
cross  of 'the  crucified  Redeemer  whose  atoning  death  they  deny  and 
Godhead  they  blaspheme. 

Our  duty  to  Mohammedans  is  clear  and  little  have  we  Christians 
done  or  are  we  doing  in  bringing  them  to  Christ.  The  work  in  Persia  is 
still  in  its  infancy  and  likewise  in  many  other  countries.  There  are  yet 
200,000,000  of  Mohammedans.  Let  each  and  every  one  ask  ourselves 
what  we  have  done  in  delivering  them  from  the  false  prophet.  We  are 
not  to  convert  the  Mohammedans,  but  He  who  has  promised  to  be  with 
His  messengers  even  to  the  end  can  and  doth  turn  the  heart  of  many 
wherever  the  Gospel  is  faithfully  preached  to  them ;  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say,  that  it  is  the  Gospel  of  Christ  unto  salvation  to  the  Musselman, 
as  well  as  every  other  seeker  of  truth.  Oh,  thank  God,  that  His  word 
is  strong  and  able  to  convict  the  sinner  to  His  saving  grace. 


DR.  ISAAC  ADAMS.  JACOB  ADAMS.  ABRAHAM  ADAMS. 

DAVID  ADAMS. 


439 


140 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


It  may  be  interesting  to  know  something  of  the  method  generally 
adopted  of  bringing  the  Gospel  to  bear  on  Mohammedans.  We  endeavor 
to  convince  them  of  their  sinfulness  and  weakness,  their  need  of  an  atone- 
ment for  sin ;  a  Redeemer  who  can  and  will  deliver  them,  not  only  from 
its  punishment,  but  also  from  its  power.  We  invite  them  to  search  the 
Koran  and  their  traditions  and  tell  us  what  provision  they  find  therein 
to  satisfy  their  deep  need.  Needless  is  it  to  say,  Islam  knows  of  no 
atonement  and  no  Savior.  Or  again,  we  point  out  the  Koran's  testimony 
to  the  Bible  and  induce  them  to  study  the  holy  books  thus  commended 
to  all  true  believers.  A  Mohammedan,  with  whom  I  was  thus  reading 
St.  John's  Gospel,  said  to  me :  "If  a  Moslem  has  read  the  Gospel  for 
even  three  days,  he  may  still  fear  to  become  a  Christian,  yet  he  will  never 
again  believe  in  Mohammed." 

We  endeavor  once  again  to  get  down  to  the  grand  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity, to  show  how  true  these  are,  how  very  much  more  true  than 
Mohammed  ever  suspected.  We  show  how  they  were  recognized  by 
Jews  and  Christians  ages  before  Mohammed,  and  that  Islam  has  forgot- 
ten many  similar  truths  and  defaced  those  which  it  has  retained.  We 
induce  them  to  get  to  know  Christ's  character  and  work  and  contrast 
it  with  those  of  the  prophet  of  Arabia.  Such  a  method  never  fails  if  pur- 
sued in  a  loving  and  prayerful  spirit,  to  produce  an  effect  upon  the  heart 
and  conscience  of  any  thoughtful  Moslem.  All  such  do  not  embrace 
Christianity,  but  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  entirely  reject  the  attrac- 
tion which  Christ  Jesus  exercises,  or  to  make  Mohammed  their  ideal 
and  their  hope.  "Some  men  know  God,"  said  a  Moslem  friend  of  mine 
who  had  knelt  weeping  with  me  to  pray  to  God  for  life  and  peace. 

"Some  men  know  God  in  a  way  that  I  do  not.  though  I  have  long 
thought  of  Him.  Pray  to  God  for  me,  that  if  it  be  His  will,  I  too,  some 
day  may  know  Him."  Such  movements,  in  the  Mohammedan  world, 
are  an  evidence  of  the  unsatisfying  nature  of  Islam  as  a  religion. 

If  we  go  with  the  cross  of  Christ  in  our  hearts,  we  shall  go  forth 
to  conquer,  and  the  crescent  shall  soon  fade  before  the  glory  of  our  re- 
turning Lord.  May  God  help  us  each  one  to  feel  the  responsibility  for 
those  who  are  dying  with  no  hope  in  Jesus. 

MOHAMMEDAN  SECTS. 

The  Mohammedans,  determined  to  excel  the  professors  of  other 
religions  in  sectarian  development,  as  well  as  in  every  other  respect, 
affirm  that,  while  the  Magians  have  seventy  sects,  the  Jews  seventy-one, 
and  the  Christians  seventy-two,  they  have  no  less  than  seventy-three 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


4-41 


sects.  The  history  of  the  divisions  and  the  subdivisions  of  what  may- 
be called  the  Mosque  is  fitted  to  remind  one  of  the  rise  and  progress  of 
sectarian  warfare  in  the  Church.  Metaphysical  disputes  about  the  na- 
ture and  attributes  of  Christ  have  always  been  fruitful  sources  of  sec- 
tarian division  among  us  Christians,  and  similar  controversies  on  the 
essence  and  attributes  of  God  have  occasioned  the  breaches  by  which  the 
unity  of  Mohammedanism  has  been  endangered,  and  to  some  extent,  ex- 
tinguished. It  is  almost  impossible  and  by  no  means  necessary  to  fol- 
low the  spirit  of  sectarianism  and  heresy  from  its  first  appearance  among 
Mohammedans,  through  the  almost  innumerable  tangled  skeins  of  con- 
troversy and  dispute  through  which  it  has  passed  to  its  present  prominent 
phases  of  development.  But  it  is  desirable  to  call  attention  to  some 
of  these. 

The  most  prominent  of  Mohammedan  sects  in  these  days  are  four : 
the  Sunnis — divided  into  four  subordinate  sects— the  Shiahs — the  Wah- 
abis  and  the  Sufis. 

i.  The  Sunnis,  called  also  the  traditionists  on  account  of  their  firm 
faith  in  the  Sunna  or  tradition  as  well  as  in  the  Koran,  are  looked  upon 
as  the  orthodox  party.  They  look  upon  Abu  Bekr,  Omar  and  Othman, 
as  well  as  upon  Ali,  as  legitimate  successors  of  Mohammed,  and  they 
neutralize  by  their  traditions  some  at  least,  of  the  most  repellant  features 
of  the  Prophet's  legislation.  For  instance,  terminable  marriages,  called 
mutaks  are  legalized  in  the  Koran ;  was  repealed  by  Mohammed  himself, 
and  bring  forward  a  tradition  in  support  of  their  assertion.  The  Sunnis 
are  divided  into  four  great  sects — the  Hanifis,  who  are  found  in  Turkey, 
Central  Asia  and  North  India ;  the  Shafts,  found  principally  in  South 
India ;  the  Malikis,  found  in  Morocco,  Barbary  and  in  some  parts  of  Af- 
rica ;  and  Humbalis,  found  in  parts  of  Arabia  and  Africa. 

The  Shiahs  are  adherents  of  Ali,  the  husband  of  Mohammed's  daugh- 
ter, Fatimah,  and  they  look  upon  and  represent  the  first  three  successors 
of  Mohammed  as  usurpers.  They  believe  in  traditions,  and  even  call 
themselves  Ahl-i-Hadis  (the  people  of  tradition) ;  but  their  collections 
of  the  almost  innumerable  sayings  of  the  Prophet,  handed  down  by  al- 
most innumerable  persons,  are  different  from  those  believed  by  the  Sun- 
nis. According  to  them,  true  religion  consists  in  a  recognition  of  the 
twelve  Imams,  or  supreme  pontiffs,  beginning  with  Ali,  and  ending  in 
Abu  Kasimi,  whom  they  call  Imam  Madhi,  and  who,  they  believe,  is  still 
alive,  and  concealed  in  some  secluded  place  whence  he  will  emerge  at  the 
appointed  time  to  deliver  the  faithful  from  all  their  troubles  and  con- 
duct them  to  victory  and  domination.    They  have,  in  consequence,  ad- 


442 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ded  a  sentence  to  the  Mohammedan  creed,  and  their  confession  of  faith 
translated  runs  thus:  "There  is  no  God  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is 
His  prophet ;  and  Ali  is  the  great  one  of  God,  the  successor  of  the  pro- 
phet of  God."  They  observe  with  solemn  pomp  the  ceremonies  of  the 
Mohauam  in  commemoration  of  the  first  three  Imams,  .Ali,  Hasan, 
Husain,  while  the  Sunnis  observe  the  tenth  day  of  the  festival  as  the  day 
on  which  God  is  said  to  have  created  Adam  and  Eve,  and'  look  upon 
much  of  what  is  done  by  their  opponents  as  idolatrous.  Persia  is  the 
great  center  of  Shia  influence,  as  Turkey  is  the  center  of  that  of  the  Sun- 
nis, and  the  antagonism  between  the  Turks  and  the  Persians  is  proverbi- 
ally intense. 

The  Wahbis  are  followers  of  Shiekh  Mohammed,  son  of  Abdul 
Wahat,  who  was  born  at  Aina,  a  village  in  Ared  and  who,  after  having 
studied  the  Koran  and  Hadis,  at  first  under  his  father's  guidance,  and 
subsequently  under  that  of  a  learned  Mauhie,  at  Medina,  became  the 
leader  of  what  has  been  very  properly  called  Mohammedan  Puritanism. 

Their  bigotry,  fanaticism  and  unscruplousness  make  them  dangerous 
elements  of  the  populations  of  the  countries  where  they  are  numerous, 
such  as  India,  Arabia,  Persia  and  Turkey.  They  look  upon  other  Mus- 
selmen  as  little  better  than  idolators,  reject  the  Ijma,  or  the  embodied 
decisions  of  the  learned  Doctors.,  who  may  be  called  the  fathers  of  the 
Mohammedan  Church ;  oppose  the  custom  of  offering  prayers  to  the 
Saints  or  illuminating  their  graves  or  shrines,  or  performing  circuits 
around  them,  or  of  prostrating  before  them ;  discard,  as  unlawful,  some 
of  the  festivals  observed  by  Musselmen  in  general,  and  subtitute  their 
fingers  for  rosaries,  in  counting  the  ninety-nine  names  of  God.  Though 
opposed  to  the  slightest  approach  to,  or  compromise  with  idolatry,  they 
interpret  literally  the  anthropomorphous  descriptions  of  God  embodied 
in  the  Koran,  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  God  literally  sits  down,  and  has 
a  hand,  though,  they  do  not  pretend  to  be  able  to  explain  how. 

The  Sufis  form  a  small  but  by  no  means  insignificant  sect;  their 
learning,  philosophical  acumen  and  ascetic  self-sacrifice  giving  them  an 
importance  and  an  influence  out  of  proportion  to  their  numerical 
strength.  Their  creed  occupies  the  same  place  in  the  development  of  Mo- 
hammedan theology  which  is  occupied  by  gnosticism  in  the  development 
of  Christian  theology ;  and  it  may  partly  be  represented  as  a  strange  mix- 
ture of  Mohammedan  unitarianism  and  pedantic  pantheism.  According 
to  it  all  things  are  elements  of  one  pervasive  essence,  and  the  human  soul, 
especially,  is  a  part  of  God  separated  from  him  by  a  strange  fate,  but 
destined  ultimately  to  be  reunited  to,  or  rather  absorbed  in,  him.  Its 


JACOB  ADAMS  IN  HIGH  CLASS  COSTUME. 


i43 


444 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


natural  state  is  one  of  ritualism  or  strict  conformity  to  the  law,  and  the 
glorious  consummation  before  its  absorbtion  or  annihilation  of  individual 
being  and  consciousness  in  the  all-embracing  being  of  God.  Its  journey 
from  its  present  degraded  condition  to  the  goal  is  divided  into  seven 
stages ;  the  first  is  that  of  proper  search  after  God  and  spiritual 
service;  the  second  that  of  love;  the  third  that  of  seclusion; 
the  fourth  that  of  knowledge ;  the  fifth  that  of  ecstacy ;  the 
sixth  that  of  revelation  of  the  true  nature  of  God  or  the  truth ; 
and  the  seventh  that  of  reunion  with  God,  the  highest  stage  attain- 
able in  this  life.  The  phraseology  in  which  the  tenets  of  the  system  are 
couched  is  borrowed  from  a  language  of  love  and  marriage,  and  of 
wantonness  and  mirth.  The  worshiper  is  the  lover.  God  is  the  beloved, 
love  of  God  is  the  intoxicating  wine,  the  mysteries  of  religion  and  the 
ringlets  of  religious  enthusiasm  are  inebriation  and  mirth.  The  most 
ardent  devotee  is  called  the  madman,  rendered  insane  by  his  passionate 
longing  to  be  reunited  to  the  beloved  from  whom  he  has  been  separated 
by  a  deplorable  accident.  Persian  and  Uudu  poetry  derive  their  rhapso- 
dical character,  their  ambiguous  phraseology,  their  gross  imagery,  and 
their  imposing  mystification  from  the  speculations  of  this  sect. 
SUPERSTITIONS  AND  PECULIARITIES  AMONG  THE 
MOHAMMEDANS. 
Among  the  low  and  ignorant,  where  popular  education  is  of  a 
meager  sort,  superstition  has  full  sway — especially  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans. Many  of  their  beliefs  are  amusing  to  strangers,  though  Orientals 
believe  in  the  absurdities  as  firmly  as  they  do  in  religion.  For  instance, 
they  deem  it  a  serious  matter  to  be  the  victim  of  an  evil  eye,  though  fortu- 
nately a  remedy  has  been  invented  for  every  emergency.  Garlic  and 
a  word  from  the  Koran  are  antidotes  for  the  evil  eye.  Dog  bread  is 
used  as  a  charm,  and  blue  beads  on  horses,  donkeys,  and  buffaloes  are 
charms  against  the  malice  of  the  envious  and  evil  eyed.  That  nothing 
must  be  wasted  that  can  be  used  as  food  by  dog  or  fish,  is  a  superstition 
tending  to  promote  economy.  You  bring  bad  luck  by  entering  a  house 
with  the  right  foot.  The  darkness  is  peopled  by  creatures  of  dim,  un- 
speakable shapes  from  the  regions  of  hell.  For  astrological  calculations 
some  days  are  unlucky,  and  even  the  Shah  himself  will  postpone  an 
interview  if  it  falls  on  an  unlucky  day.  Sometimes  a  long  forgotten  and 
lost  grave  of  a  saint  suddenly  becomes  a  reputed  center  of  miracles.  Some 
one  will  tell  his  neighbors  that  while  crossing  the  grave  of  a  certain 
saint  his  disease  departed  from  him ;  and  although  no  one  knew  before 
whether  the  grave  was  that  of  a  saint  or  devil,  or  whether  the  originator 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


445 


of  the  report  is  worthy  of  confidence  or  not,  the  story  goes  with  light- 
ning speed,  bringing  throngs  of  the  sick  and  infirm  from  the  remotest 
parts  to  the  magic  mound. 

When  at  home  I  scorned  and  laughed  at  such  spectacles,  with  a 
sense  of  mingled  contempt  and  pity,  but  since  I  have  seen  Americans 
throng  about  the  fortune  teller,  I  have  more  charity  for  our  Oriental 
credulity. 

A  magician  may  write  a  prescription  for  a  woman  whose  husband 
does  not  love  her,  and  tell  her  to  put  it  under  the  hinge  of  the  door  of 
their  house  and  as  much  as  the  door  is  opened  and  shut,  so  much  will 
her  husband's  love  grow  towards  her. 

Another  may  write  some  magical  words  upon  a  nail  which  the  lady 
is  instructed  to  place  close  to  the  stove  or  oven  where  it  may  become 
heated.  Just  as  the  nail  grows  hot,  in  the  same  proportion  does  her 
husband's  love  grow  warm  towards  her. 

When  a  child  is  born  to  a  bride,  they  stick  needles  in  her  clothes, 
and  let  them  remain  there  for  forty  days,  so  that  no  demons  may  ap- 
proach or  touch  her.  Should  the  child  get  sick  or  feel  badly  they  sup- 
pose that  an  evil  eye  has  beaten  him.  Should  they  suspect  any  person 
who  is  supposed  to  have  an  evil  eye,  they  will  secretly  get  a  small  piece 
from  his  clothing  and  burn  it  under  the  child.  In  so  doing,  the  evil  eye  is 
supposed  to  be  put  out. 

When  the  children  of  a  family  become  fretful  they  suppose  that 
an  evil  eye  has  touched  them.  Then  they  take  a  little  piece  of  dough 
and  cast  it  into  the  oven.  As  it  swells  and  bursts  they  think  the  evil  eye 
is  put  out. 

In  the  clothing  of  Mohammedan  children  can  be  found  various 
prescriptions  which  are  bound  in  a  triangular  form.  On  them  are 
written  some  words  from  the  Koran  or  from  some  other  magical  books. 
These  are  supposed  to  protect  the  children  from  bad  spirits  and  other 
dangers. 

When  a  child  is  born  they  throw  a  man's  trousers  upon  him  so  that 
the  devils  may  not  take  him  away.  When  the  children  have  whooping 
cough,  they  say,  "Give  them  donkey's  milk  to  drink." 

If  you  wish  \o  keep  a  cat  so  that  it  will  never  leave  you,  take  a 
little  stick  and  measure  its  tail,  then  place  the  stick  in  the  air  duct  of 
the  oven  and  the  cat  will  never  leave  your  premises.  When  you  have 
a  blister  on  your  tongue,  rub  your  hand  upon  the  head  of  a  first-born 
child.    That  will  cure  the  blister. 


446 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Bind  a  horn  upon  the  handle  of  your  churn,  and  you  will  get  much 
butter. 

They  say  when  dogs  howl,  it  is  because  they  see  angels. 
If  a  man  should  eat  the  loaf  of  bread  that  was  baked  first,  his  wife 
will  die. 

Seeing  bees  in  a  dream  indicates  riches. 

To  dream  of  eating  grapes  presages  sorrow  and  flowing  tears. 

To  dream  of  buffaloes  fighting  means  that  the  angels  will  come  for 
the  soul  of  some  member  of  the  family. 

The  Mohammedan  boy's  entrance  into  school,  at  the  age  of  seven,  is 
a  festive  occasion.  The  whole  school  goes  to  the  home  of  the  lad,  who  is 
placed  on  a  richly  caparisoned  donkey ;  then,  formed  in  double  file  pro- 
cession they  escort  the  young  student  to  the  school  house,  singing  songs, 
This  is,  certainly,  a  beautiful  custom,  and  tends  to  impress  on  the 
minds  of  the  young  the  importance  of  this  new  epoch  in  life.  These 
Persian  common  schools  present  a  very  singular  scene  to  a  stranger. 
The  pupils  are  all  seated  cross  legged  on  the  marble  pavement  in  the 
porch  of  the  mosque,  formed  in  semicircular  clusters  around  the  mollah, 
or  teacher.  The  mollah,  as  a  rule,  is  an  old  man  with  a  white  beard,  who 
holds  in  his  hand  an  extremely  long  stick,  which  reaches  to  all  parts 
of  the  school.  As  he  is  quite  old,  and  too  lazy  to  move  from  his  seat  in 
case  of  mischief  among  the  pupils,  he  stretches  this  unmercifully  long 
stick  over  the  unruly  ones.  He  is  asleep  nearly  half  the  time,  and  on 
opening  his  eyes,  he  often  finds  the  entire  school  a  playground  of  wild 
disorder,  but  his  long  stick  soon  establishes  peace  and  order.  I  remem- 
ber of  how  these  young  students  got  even  with  their  patriarch  teacher 
by  anointing  his  head  and  whiskers  with  oil  and  wax  while  he  was  in 
his  usual  sleep  in  the  schoolroom,  and  of  what  a  time  he  frequently 
had  to  find  his  stolen  stick.  The  strangest  part  of  these  Persian  schools 
is  the  manner  of  studying.  All  read  their  lesson  aloud  in  shrill  and  deaf- 
ening voices,  and  recite  at  the  same  time  in  a  loud,  monotone.  When  I 
passed  by  a  mosque  where  th  •  j  Persian  schools  are  held,  I  used  to  cover 
my  ears. 

Some  regard  Ali,  Hasan  and  Husain  as  first  of  all  creatures,  the 
supreme  intercessors,  and  endowed  with  divine  light.  Ali  is  the  greatest 
of  all.  On  him  rests  the  hope  of  salvation.  The  Moslem  believes  in 
written  prayers  and  passages  or  verses  from  the  Koran.  These  are  laid 
on  a  cloth  and  placed  in  leather  cases,  and  are  seen  suspended  from  the 
neck  or  tied  to  the  arm  for  protection. 

Charms  with  the  names  of  the  Imams  engraved  on  the  stones  and 


RELIGIONS  OF q PERSIA. 


44? 


beads  from  Kerballa  are  carried  with  them  as  the  belief  is  that  these  keep 
a  man  from  accident,  evil  eye  and  robbery. 

The  Mohammedans,  when  they  cut  their  finger  nails,  wrap  them 
in  paper  or  cloth  and  throw  them  behind  their  heads.  Their  idea  is  that 
God  will  ask  where  their  finger  nails  are,  and  they  will  say  that  they 
have  them  on  their  back.  Others  will  save  them  and  bury  them  with  the 
person  at  his  death. 

If  a  man  has  two  wives  and  loves  one  more  than  the  other,  the  one 
that  has  been  slighted  will  go  to  the  Persian  priest  and  tell  him  the  case, 
then  he  will  send  her  to  her  husband  to  bring  one  hair  out  of  his  head, 
also  one  of  her  own.  When  she  returns  with  these,  the  priest  will  read 
a  few  verses  out  of  the  Holy  Koran,  and  then  take  the  two  hairs,  burn 
them,  and  put  the  ashes  in  a  glass  of  water,  which  the  woman  must 
give  to  her  husband,  who  will  thenceforth  love  her  more  than  the  other 
one,  as  the  power  of  the  words  of  the  prophet  having  been  read  over 
the  glass  of  water,  it  will  lead  him  to  love  her. 

All  the  Mohammedans  believe  that  Mohammed  stands  at  the 
gate  of  heaven.  They  believe  that  when  they  go  to  heaven,  he  will  let 
them  pass  safely  over  the  bridge,  which  is  sharper  than  any  two-edged 
sword  and  thin  as  a  hair.  When  a  person  of  some  other  religion  comes, 
he  will  slacken  the  hair  and  the  person  will  be  cast  into  hell.  They  feel 
that  they  are  contaminated  by  touching  the  Christian  Bible,  and  great 
care  is  exercised  to  keep  the  Koran  out  of  the  hands  of  the  Christians. 

Jonah  was  three  days  and  nights  in  the  belly  of  a  whale.  .After 
this  example,  some  Persians  fast  three  days  and  three  nights ;  after  that 
they  bring  seven  kinds  of  grains,  and  mixing  them  together,  add  seven 
parts  of  salt  and  eat  it;  then  they  retire  and  dream  that  they  are  very 
thirsty,  and  some  one  of  the  opposite  sex  is  giving  them  water — and  then 
that  person  will  be  their  mate. 

Once  a  camel  strayed  into  a  mosque,  mistaking  it  for  a  caravansary. 
All  the  worshipers  got  around  it,  declaring  that  even  the  dumb  beast 
recognizes  the  presence  of  the  prophet.  They  decorated  and  arrayed 
it  and  then  paraded  through  the  streets,  each  one  taking  some  of  the 
hairs  of  the  animal  as  a  blessing,  and  the  animal  became  an  attache  of  the 
mosque. 

All  Christian  nations  are  considered  animals  by  the  Mohammedans. 
No  honor  or  any  compliment  is  given  to  anyone  out  of  their  circle.  When 
they  meet  each  other,  they  say,  "Peace  unto  you."  But  on  meeting  any 
Christian  or  Jew,  they  use  a  different  greeting,  to  show  he  is  not  one  of 
them.   They  always  try  to  turn  people  to  their  own  faith.    If  anyone 


448 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


asks:  "How  can  I  believe  in  your  religion,  when  you  do  not  let  me 
touch  your  Koran  or  allow  me  to  learn  your  worship  rules?"  they 
say :  "It  is  our  duty  to  keep  away  from  you  as  long  as  you  are  a  Chris- 
tian, because  you  are  not  clean  enough  to  take  our  holy  book  in  your 
hands.  Confess  in  the  name  of  Mohammed  and  be  circumcised.  Then 
you  can  come  near  us  and  know  about  our  doings." 

Among  the  nominally  Mohammedan  races  of  North  Africa  exists 
superstitions  akin  to  fetishism,  shamanism.  Egypt  Arabs  believe  that 
earth,  air  and  water  are  peopled  with  spirits  who  busy  themselves  with 
human  affairs.  Hardly  any  act  is  performed  without  asking  permission 
of  the  spirits  of  the  place.  The  Arabs  of  the  Barbary  States  have  the 
greatest  fear  of  the  enchantment  of  the  devils,  and  the  profoundest 
reverence  for  the  idiots.  Among  the  Moors  of  Morocco  the  evil  spirits 
have  the  greatest  dominion  over  the  imagination.  Every  ruin,  almost 
every  object,  has  its  devil. 

They  eat  snakes,  scorpions,  etc.,  pretend  to  be  inspired,  and  commit 
the  grossest  extravagance.  At  their  annual  festivals,  their  chief  Mara- 
bout, inspires  the  devotees,  who  become  more  or  less  frenzied.  Whirling 
round  and  round,  they  work  themselves  into  ecstacy,  lacerate  themselves 
and  sally  forth.  The  power  of  taking  up  scorpions  and  deadly  serpents 
is  an  essential  qualification  for  Marabouthood.  The  most  fanatical  sects 
of  ^Morocco  are  the  Assoui  and  the  Hamduchi.  The  founder  of  the 
former  claimed  the  power  of  rendering  snake  bites  harmless  to  his  follow- 
ers ;  the  Hamdouchi  that  of  wounding  themselves  without  injury.  The 
power  of  resistance  against  the  bite  of  a  serpent  and  sting  of  a  scorpion  is 
obtained  by  the  Assouri  blowing  upon  the  seeker  of  immunity.  Both 
sects,  although  formerly  Mohammedan,  and  akin  to  the  howling  der- 
vishes, borrowed  their  peculiar  superstitions  from  a  more  ancient  and 
degraded  devil-worship.  It  has  been  surmised  that  these  sectaries  are  a 
remnant  of  the  Ophites.  Their  peculiar  tenets  and  their  custom  of  wind- 
ing enormous  serpents  around  the  neck  and  arms  came  from  the  ancient 
serpent  worship  of  Egypt. 

SLEEPING  (Arabic  naum). 

Heb.  num.  It  is  usual  for  the  Moslems  to  sleep  with  the  head  in  the 
direction  of  Mecca. 

*  Abu  Zarr  relates  that  on  one  occasion  he  was  sleeping  on  his  belly, 
and  the  Prophet  saw  him,  and,  kicking  him,  said,  "O  Jundub!  this 
way  of  sleeping  is  the  way  the  devils  sleep!" 

Abab  says  he  saw  the  Prophet  sleeping  on  his  back,  with  one  leg 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


449 


lying  over  the  other,  but  Jabir  says  the  Prophet  forbade  that  way  of 
sleeping. 

SWINE  (Arabic  khinzir). 

Swine's  flesh  is  strictly  forbidden  to  Moslems  in  four  different 
places  in  the  Koran,  namely,  Sura  ii.  168,  v.  4.  vi.  146,  xvi,  116;  in 
which  places  its  use  is  prohibited,  with  that  which  dieth  of  itself  and 
blood. 

In  the  Traditions,  it  is  related  that  Mohammed  said  that,  "when 
Jesus,  the  Son  of  Mary,  shall  descend  from  the  heavens  upon  your  people 
as  a  just  king,  and  he  will  break  the  cross  and  will  kill  all  the  swine. 

SPITTING. 

According  to  the  Traditions,  Moslems  must  not  spit  on  the  left 
side,  and  cover  it  over  with  earth.    Spitting  in  mosques  is  forbidden. 

Mohammed  said :  "Spit  not  in  front,  for  you  are  in  God's  presence. 
Spit  not  on  the  right  hand,  for  there  standeth  the  angel  who  recordeth 
your  good  actions." 

SNEEZING  (Arabic  futas). 

According  to  the  Mohammedan  religion  it  is  a  sacred  duty  to  reply 
to  a  sneeze.  For  example,  if  a  person  sneeze  and  say  immediately 
afterwards,  '  God  be  praised,"  it  is  incumbent  upon  at  least  one  of  the 
party  to  exclaim,  "God  have  mercy  on  you."  This  custom  of  replying 
to  a  sneeze  existed  among  Jews,  whose  sneezing  formula  was  "Tobim 
khayim !"  i.  e.,  "God  life." 

There  are  interesting  chapters  on  saluting  after  sneezing  in  Taylor's 
Primitive  Culture,  and  Isaac  DTsraeli's  Curiosities  of  Literature. 

Replying  to  a  sneeze  is  amongst  the  duties  called  Tarz  Kafa'i. 

Abu  Hurairah  relates  that  Mohammed  said,  "Verily  God  loves 
sneezing  and  hates  yawning." 

DOGS. 

Arabic  kalb,  are  unclean  animals;  for  according  to  a  tradition  by 
Abu  Hurairah,  Mohammed  said  that  when  a  dog  drinks  in  a  vessel,  it 
must  be  washed  seven  times,  and  that  the  first  cleansing  should  be 
with  earth. 

Most  people  believe  that  when  a  dog  howls  near  a  house  it  forebodes 
death,  for,  it  is  said,  a  dog  can  distinguish  the  awful  form  of  Azra'il,  the 
Angel  of  Death. 

Ibu  Umr  says  that  dogs  used  to  come  into  the  Masjid  at  Mecca 


450 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


in  the  time  of  the  Prophet,  but  the  Companions  never  purified  the 
mosque  when  the  dog  was  dry. 

The  Imam  Abu  Yusuf  holds  that  sale  of  a  dog  that  bites  is  unlaw- 
ful, whilst  the  Imam  ash-Shafi'i  has  said  that  the  sale  of  a  dog  is  abso- 
lutely illegal,  because  the  Prophet  said  the  wages  of  whoredom  and  the 
price  of  a  dog  are  forbidden.  Abu  Hanifah  holds  that  dogs  which  are 
trained  to  hunt  or  watch  may  be  lawfully  sold. 

It  is  lawful  to  hunt  with  a  trained  dog,  and  the  sign  of  a  dog  being 
trained  is  that  he  catches  game  three  times  without  killing  it.  The  dog 
must  be  let  slip  with  the  ejaculation:  "Bismillah  'llahi  Akbar!"  (In  the 
name  of  God,  the  great  God!)  when  all  game  seized  by  him  becomes 
lawful  food.  This  custom  is  founded  upon  a  verse  in  the  Koran,  Sura 
v.  6:  "Lawful  for  you  all  good  things  and  what  ye  have  taught  beast 
of  prey  to  catch,  training  them  like  dogs ;  ye  teach  them  as  God  taught 
you.    And  mention  the  name  of  God  over  it." 

THE  DEVIL. 

The  devil  is  believed  to  be  descended  from  Jann,  the  progenitor  of 
the  evil  genii.  He  is  said  to  have  been  named  'Azazil,  and  to  have 
possessed  authority  over  the  animal  and  spirit  kingdom.  But  when  God 
created  Adam,  the  devil  refused  to  prostrate  before  him,  and  he  was  there- 
fore expelled  from  Eden.  The  sentence  of  death  was  then  pronounced 
upon  Satan ;  but  upon  seeking  a  respite,  he  obtained  it  until  the  Day  of 
Judgment,  when  he  will  be  destroyed. 

DREAMS. 

Arabic  hulm;  manam;  ruya.  The  term  used  for  a  bad  dream  is 
hulm  and  for  an  ordinary  dream,  manam,  ruya  being  used  to  express 
a  heavenly  vision. 

According  to  the  Traditions,  the  Prophet  is  related  to  have  said, 
"A  good  dream  is  of  God's  favor,  and  a  bad  dream  is  of  the  devil's ; 
therefore,  when  any  of  you  dream  a  dream  which  is  such  as  he  is 
pleased  with,  then  he  must  not  tell  it  to  any  but  a  beloved  friend ;  and 
when  he  dreams  a  bad  dream,  then  let  him  seek  protection  from  God 
both  from  its  evil  and  from  the  wickedness  of  Satan ;  and  let  him  spit 
three  times  over  his  left  shoulder,  and  not  mention  the  dream  to  any 
one;  then,  verily,  no  evil  shall  come  nigh  him."  "The  truest  dream 
is  the  one  which  you  have  about  daybreak."  "Good  dreams  are  one  of  the 
parts  of  prophecy." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


451 


HAIR  (Arabic  sha'r). 

The  sale  of  human  hair  is  unlawful  in  the  same  manner  as  the  use 
of  it  for  any  purpose  is  unlawful.  Being  a  part  of  the  human  body,  it 
is  necessary  to  preserve  it  from  disgrace,  to  which  an  exposure  of  it  to 
sale  necessarily  subjects  it.  It  is  related  in  the  Traditions  that  God  has 
cursed  women  who  use  false  hair. 


A  HIGHWAYMAN. 


HAND  (Arabic  yad). 

(1)  It  is  a  rule  with  Moslems  to  honor  the  right  hand  above  the 
left;  to  use  the  right  hand  for  all  honorable  purposes,  and  the  left 
for  actions  which,  though  necessary,  are  unclean.  The  hands  must  be 
washed  before  prayers. 

(2)  The  expression  yadu  'llah,  the  "hand  of  God"  occurs  in  the 
Koran : — 


452 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Sura  v.  69:  "The  Jews  say,  'God's  hand  is  fettered,'  their  hands 
are  fettered,  for  they  are  cursed." 

Sura  xlviii.  10:    "God's  hand  is  above  their  hands." 

There  is  a  controversy  between  the  orthodox  Sunnis  and  the  Wah- 
habis,  regarding  the  expression,  "God's  hand."  The  former  maintaining 
that  it  is  a  figurative  expression  for  the  power  of  God,  the  latter  holding 
that  it  is  literal ;  but  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  in  what  sense  or  manner 
God  has  a  hand ;  for  as  the  essence  of  God  is  not  known,  how  can  the 
manner  of  His  existence  be  understood? 

EVIL  EYE  (Isabatu  T-Ain). 

Mohammed  was  a  believer  in  the  baneful  influence  of  an  evil  eye. 
Asma'bint  'Umais  relates  that  she  said,  "O  Prophet,  the  family  of 
Ja'far  are  affected  by  the  baneful  influences  of  an  evil  eye;  may  I  use 
spells  for  them  or  not?"  The  Prophet  said  "Yes,  for  if  there  were  any- 
thing in  the  world  which  would  overcome  fate,  it  would  be  an  evil  eye." 

EAR-RINGS;  NOSE-RINGS. 

In  the  East  it  is  the  universal  custom  of  Mohammedan  women 
to  wear  ear-rings,  and  they  are  not  infrequently  worn  by  young  men 
and  children.  Gold  ear-rings  are,  however,  forbidden  in  Traditions ;  for 
Abu  Hurairah  relates  that  the  Prophet  said,  "Whoever  wishes  to  put 
into  the  ear  or  the  nose  of  a  friend  a  ring  of  hell  fire,  let  him  put  in  the 
ear  or  the  nose  of  his  friend  a  gold  ring  *  *  *  let  your  ornament 
be  of  silver."  And  Asma'bint  Yazid  relates  the  same  tradition. 

FAI.' 

Booty  obtained  from  infidels.  According  to  Mohammed  ibu  Tahir, 
iai'  is  booty  taken  from  a  country  which  submits  to  Islam  without 
resistance,  as  distinguished  from  ghanimah,  or  plunder.  The  Khalifah 
'Umar  said  it  was  the  special  privilege  of  the  Prophet  to  take  booty 
as  well  as  plunder,  a  privilege  not  permitted  to  any  other  Prophet. 

Auf  ibu  Malik  says  the  Prophet  used  to  divide  booty  on  the  same 
day  he  took  it,  and  would  give  two  shares  to  a  man  with  a  wife,  and  only 
one  share  to  a  man  without  one. 

BLASPHEMY  (Arabic  kufr). 

Lit.  "to  hide"  (the  truth).  It  includes  a  denial  of  any  of  the  essential 
principles  of  Islam. 

A  Moslem  convicted  of  blasphemy  is  sentenced  to  death  in  Moham- 
medan countries. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


453 


BAB  AND  BABISM. 

The  Mohammedan  religion  is  to-day  divided  into  many  different 
sects,  and  this  division  greatly  weakens  it.  Within  sixty  years  past  a  new 
religion  has  been  developed  in  Persia,  known  by  the  name  of  Babism, 
which  already  numbers  its  disciples  by  millions,  and  is  steadily  making 
inroads  upon  the  Mohammedan  religion  of  which  it  is  in  fact  an  offshoot. 
It  is  thought  by  some  to  have  a  large  future  before  it.  Christian  mis- 
sionaries come  in  contact  with  it,  and  from  the  friendliness  of  the  so- 
called  Babis  to  the  Christian  religion,  hopes  have  been  cherished  that  it 
may  prove  a  stepping  stone  for  the  Gospel  into  Moslem  hearts.  For  this 
reason,  if  no  other,  it  deserves  the  attention  of  all  thoughtful  Christians. 
Mirza  Ali  Mohammed,  the  founder  of  the  new  religion,  was  the  son  of 
a  cloth  merchant  of  the  city  of  Shiraz,  and  first  came  to  public  notice 
in  the  year  1843.  He  began  to  plan  the  new  religion  at  the  age  of  18, 
but  did  not  reveal  it  until  he  was  25  years  old.  The  foundation  of  his 
faith  was  this :  Mohammed,  like  Christ,  taught  that  the  latter  days  will 
be  a  millennium.  They  have  a  tradition  that  when  all  prophets  have 
died  or  have  been  killed  by  their  enemies,  a  son,  six  years  of  age  will, 
by  the  direction  of  Allah,  be  hid  in  an  unknown  well.  He  is  to  remain 
there  until  the  millennium.  It  was  believed  that  he  would  be  the  ruler 
of  the  Mohammedans  in  these  last  days.  He  was  to  lead  both  his  victori- 
ous armies  and  conquer  all  the  world,  and  Islam  would  become  the  uni- 
versal religion.  His  early  education  was  limited  even  for  the  advantages 
Persia  affords,  but  with  a  strong  spiritual  bent  in  his  nature  he  seems 
to  have  given  himself  much  to  religious  meditation  and  study.  Paying 
a  visit  to  Kerbela,  the  center  of  theological  thought  among  the  Shiahs 
of  Persia,  he  sat  for  a  few  months  under  the  teaching  of  a  noted  and 
rather  mystical  teacher  of  the  Mohammedan  theology  and  became  his 
enthusiastic  disciple.  He  entered  with  special  zest  into  the  study  of 
the  doctrine  which  figures  so  conspicuously  in  Persian  theology,  of  the 
coming  "Unseen  Imam"  whose  return  as  the  "Imam  Mahdi"  is  to  in- 
troduce the  Mohammedan  millennium,  in  regard  to  whom  some  advanced 
and  heretical  views  were  taught  by  the  school  to  which  his  teacher  be- 
longed. The  impression  made  on  his  mind  by  his  devout  contemplations 
on  this  doctrine  are  exhibited  in  the  following  passages  which  we  find 
translated  from  his  earlier  writings :  Addressing  the  absent  Imam,  he 
says: 

"When  are  the  days  of  your  empire,  that  I  may  struggle  for  you  ? 
And  when  are  the  days  of  your  glory,  that  I  may  obtain  the  blessings 
of  your  visage?  And  when  are  the  days  of  your  kingdom,  when  I  may 


154 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


take  revenge  on  your  enemies?  And  when  are  the  days  of  your  mani- 
festation, that  I  may  be  independent  of  all  except  you?  And  when  are 
the  days  of  the  appearance  of  your  lordship,  that  by  your  permission  I 
may  say  'Be,"  and  it  shall  become  existent  before  you?  And  when  are 
the  days  which  God  has  promised  unto  his  servants  for  your  coming?" 

From  his  long  and  earnest  meditations  on  this  subject,  he  seems 
to  have  become  convinced  that  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  special  com- 
munication with  the  Imam.  It  was  but  one  step  farther  to  imagine  that 
his  exalted  thoughts  were  veritable  inspirations  from  the  supreme  foun- 
tain all  the  truth,  and  that  he,  himself,  was  an  inspired  prophet.  Upon 
his  return  from  Karbela,  the  young  enthusiast  drew  about  him  his  par- 
ticular friends,  and  revealed  to  them  his  inward  consciousness  of  a  pro- 
phetic call,  announcing  himself  as  the  "Bab,"  i.  e.,  the  door,  or  gate, 
meaning  the  channel  of  grace  from  the  unseen  Imam.  He  began  preach- 
ing in  the  mosques  against  the  prevailing  irreligion  of  the  times, 
especially  berating  the  Moslem  clergy  for  their  scandalous  vices  and 
unfitness  to  be  spiritual  guides  to  the  people,  emphasizing  the  need  o.:  • 
morality  of  deeds,  rather  than  one  of  words  and  formal  rules.  He  ad- 
vocated temperance,  opposed  the  growing  use  of  opium — while  he,  him- 
self, neither  smoked  tobacco  nor  drank  liquor  or  coffee.  He  discoun- 
tenanced polygamy,  forbade  concubinage,  asceticism  and  mendicancy, 
prohibited  divorce  and  taught  the  equality  of  the  sexes ;  encouraged  the 
practice  of  hospitality,  and  demanded  justice  for  all  citizens  alike. 
Though  attacking  none  of  the  dogmas  of  Islam,  the  tendency  of  his 
opinions  were  undeniably  heterodox.  The  new  teachings,  however,  be- 
came popular  at  once.  Numbers  of  his  fellow  citizens  assented  to  the 
pretensions  and  creed  of  the  new  claimant  to  prophethood  with  alacrity 
and  fervor.  Missionaries  were  sent  out  to  other  towns  to  announce 
the  tidings,  and  explain  the  new  doctrines.  Adherents  sprang  up  every- 
where they  went — men  of  all  ranks,  educated  and  unlearned  alike  wel- 
coming the  good  news,  and  in  turn  becoming  their  earnest  heralds.  This 
great  popularity  was  due  not  merely  to  the  attractive  program  of  re- 
form presented,  but  largely  to  the  personal  sanctity  conceded  to  the 
Bab,  a  quality  to  which  the  Oriental  mind  is  ever  particularly  susceptible, 
to  the  sweetness  of  his  manners,  to  the  eloquence  of  his  voice  and  to  the 
apparent  depth  of  meaning  in  his  utterances,  all  of  which  exercised  a  spell 
over  his  hearers  even  his  enemies  admitted  and  feared.  In  stature,  he 
was  tall  and  slender,  eyes  black,  eye-brows  heavy  and  long,  beard  patri- 
archal. His  countenance  was  very  pleasant  and  attractive.  In  con- 
versation with  high  and  low  classes  of  people  alikev  he  showed  himself 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


455 


a  servant  of  all.    He  was  poetical,  a  great  orator  and  a  deep  thinker. 
He  wrote  many  beautiful  poems.   His  epistles  to  his  disciples  were  phil- 
osophical.  His  words  in  sermons  touched  the  hearts  of  men.   Later  on, 
Mirza  Ali  Mohammed,  like  a  good  Moslem,  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca. 
His  return  was  signalized  by  the  renewal  of  debates  and  dissensions 
between  himself  and  his  followers  on  the  one  side  and  the  orthodox 
party  on  the  other,  which  finally  led  to  the  arrest  of  the  Bab  by  the 
governor  of  his  native  province  and  his  detention  at  Shiraz  for  a  time. 
Subsequently  he  was  removed  to  Isphahan,  where  a  friendly  governor 
showed  him  much  favor.   Meanwhile,  his  apostles  continued  more  active 
in  their  proselyting  work  than  ever.    Notable  among  these  were  two 
of  the  regular  Mohammedan  clergy  of  great  learning  and  ability,  who 
rank  in  the  history  of  this  movement  as  the  foremost  champions  of  the 
new  doctrines — Mullah  Hussein  and  Haji  Mohammed  Ali.   With  these 
was  associated  a  woman,  who  obtained  a  celebrity  throughout  Persia 
almost  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  that  land.   She  is  admitted  by  friend 
and  enemy  to  have  been  a  woman  of  marvelous  beauty  and  rare  intel- 
lectual gifts.   As  a  scholar,  she  excelled  in  her  knowledge  of  the  Arabic 
language  and  of  Islantic  traditions   and  philosophy.     She  was  a 
poetess,  and  her  doquence  of  speech  was  fascinating.    Her  name  was 
Zerryn  Taj,  but  she  is  commonly  known  as  Kurratul-Ayn.  or  "the  Con-, 
solation  of  the  eyes,"  with  reference  to  her  surpassing  lovliness  of  coun- 
tenance^_Sheneyer  met  the  Bab  during  her  lifetime,  but  learned  of  him 
as  a  spiritual  guide  and  channel  of  the  new  revelation  through  Mullah 
Hussein.   From  her  correspondence  with  the  Bab,  he  became  impressed 
•withher  rare  qualities  and  attainments,  and  included  her  as  one  of  the 
eighteen  dignitaries  of  the  first  Babi  Hierarchy.    In  the  campaign  that 
was  pushecTby  thlTcTevotees  of  the  Bab,  the  persuasive  eloquence  of  this" 
_p_eerless  young  Persian  woman  is  credited  as  second  to  that  of  no  other. 
Bydegrees  the  new  sectarians  became  more  and  more  bold,  more 
and  more  sanguine  of  revolutionizing  the  ancient  faith  of  the  land.  Tn 
all  th>3    rincipal  cities  of  central  and  southern  Persia,  some  in  every 
class  in  society,  publicly  or  privately,  hailed  the  reform  movement  as  a 
welcome  change  in  the  old  order  of  things.  The  orthodox  clergy  became 
alarmed  as  they  saw  their  religious  supremacy  in  danger  of  dissolution, 
while  the  turmoils  and  insurrections  which  followed  from  the  Babi 
preachers,  opened  the  eyes  of  the  government  to  serious  danger  to  state 
as  well  as  church.    In  the  provinces  of  Khorasan  and  Mazandaran  and 
in  the  city  of  Zanjan,  the  Babis  assumed  a  fierce  and  defiant  front,  com- 
ing into  violent  collision  with  the  local  authorities.   The  king's  ministers, 


156 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


as  the  first  step  towards  checking-  the  rising  tide  of  revolution,  ordered 
the  Bab  to  be  removed  from  Isphahan  to  Tabriz  and  there  secluded 
in  some  safe  place.  This  was  in  the  year  1847,  only  four  years  since  the 
youthful  Ali  Mohammed  first  announced  his  prophetic  mission.  On  ar- 
riving at  Tabriz  he  was  dispatched  by  order  of  the  governer  to  the  fort- 
ress of  Maku,  held  by  a  semi-independent  chieftain,  situated  at  the  base 
of  Mount  Ararat,  three  of  four  days  to  the  northwest  of  Tabriz;  but 
his  confinement  there  was  not  so  close  as  to  prevent  the  access  of  his 
friends  and  an  active  correspondence  with  distant  and  industrious  lieu- 
tenants. To  interrupt  this  freedom  of  communication,  he  was  removed 
to  the  fortress  of  Cherick  near  Salmas,  two  days  from  Oroomiah.  The 
quiet  of  his  retirement  here,  lasting  two  years  and  a  half,  was  favorable 
to  meditation  and  study  and  he  busied  himself  in  practices  of  devotion 
and  in  the  development  of  his  theological  opinions  and  his  code  of  civil 
and  social  regulations.  Gradually  he  assumed  higher  and  higher  posi- 
tion and  authority,  until  he  announced  himself  to  be  the  "Imam  Mahdi." 
himself.  During  this  interval  the  religious  war  kindled  by  the  Bab's 
energetic  followers  in  Mazandaran  and  Zanjan  grew  into  a  blaze,  which 
taxed  all  the  energies  of  the  local  government  to  extinguish.  Meanwhile, 
Mohammed  Shah  died  (September  5,  1848)  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Nasreddin,  the  late  sovereign  of  Persia,  who  selected  as  his  prime 
minister  the  very  able  statesman  Mirza  Taki  Khan.  Immediately  upon 
coming  into  power,  this  minister  addressed  himself  vigorously  to  quell- 
ing the  Babi  disturbances  in  different  districts  and  towns.  That  in  the 
town  of  Zanjan,  where  the  Bab's  friends  were  very  numerous  and  reso- 
lute, was  only  put  down  after  a  prolonged  siege,  lasting  from  May  to 
September,  1850.  While  the  contest  dragged  on,  the  government  deter- 
mined on  the  death  of  the  Bab,  as  absolutely  necessary  to  the  pacification 
of  the  kingdom.  On  his  way  from  the  castle  of  his  imprisonment  to 
Tabriz  for  trial  and  execution,  he  passed  through  Oroomiah.  We  are 
told  that  vast  numbers  flocked  to  see  him,  and  even  the  governor  did 
not  conceal  his  sympathy  with  the  prisoner  of  such  engaging  manners; 
the  crowd  shed  tears  as  they  looked  upon  the  interesting  young  man, 
and  more  than  half  believed  that  he  might  be  the  very  "Imam  Mahdi," 
the  great  desire  of  Moslem  nations.  Traditions,  about  the  town  relate 
that  when  he  went  to  the  bath  the  people  carried  away  the  water  in 
vessels,  in  which  he  had  bathed  as  if  it  were  holy.  But  at  Tabriz,  Persian 
officialdom  and  the  sternly  orthodox  populace  of  that  city,  did  not 
so  lose  their  heads.  The  man  was  examined  before  the  Moslem  high 
priests  and  was  condemned,  as  a  heretic,  to  be  shot,  along  with  two  of 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


457 


his  companions  in  arrest.  One  of  these,  however,  recanted  and  saved 
his  life.  The  Bab  was  conducted  from  one  priest's  house  to  another  in 
succession,  each  in  turn  ratifying  the  sentence  of  death,  while  in  the 
crowded  streets  through  which  he  passed,  throngs  of  zealous  fanatics 
grossly  insulted  him  and  his  companion.  Arriving  at  the  place  of  ex- 
ecution, a  public  square  in  the  city,  the  prisoners  were  suspended 
by  their  arms  against  a  wall,  in  conspicuous  public  view  and  a  company 
of  soldiers  was  drawn  up  to  shoot  them. 

At  the  first  discharge  the  Bab's  companion  fell  dead,  but  strange 
to  say,  the  bullets  only  cut  the  cords  which  bound  the  Bab  himself, 
leaving  him  fall  to  the  ground,  free,  and  he  took  to  flight.  It  is  thor- 
oughly conceivable,  indeed  it  is  altogether  probable,  from  a  Persian 
point  of  view,  that  had  the  man  risen  and  thrown  himself  upon  the  con- 
fidence of  the  superstitious  populace,  declaring  his  delivery  a  miracle 
of  divine  power  in  his  favor,  and  a  confirmation  of  his  claims,  the  whole 
town  would  have  acclaimed  his  pretensions  and  sooner  or  later  the  coun- 
try itself  would  have  acknowledged  his  authority  to  overthrow  the  Kajar 
dynasty.  As  it  was,  in  his  bewilderment,  he  fled  to  a  neighboring  guard 
house  where  he  was  cut  down  and  beaten  to  death  by  Musselman  soldiery. 
This  occurred  July  15,  1850.  The  execution  of  the  Bab  in  no  wise  dis- 
couraged the  faith  and  zeal  of  his  disciples;  on  the  other  hand,  it  ex- 
asperated them  against  the  government  and  inflamed  them  to  desperate 
efforts  for  its  overturn.  By  the  vigorous  efforts  of  the  military  power 
the  several  insurrections  in  the  country  were  brought  to  an  end.  But 
the  spirit  of  vengeance  for  the  death  of  their  prophet  was  everywhere  rife 
among  the  sect  and  soon  came  to  a  head  in  the  conspiracy  against  the 
life  of  the  Shah.  He  was  attacked  while  riding  out  with  his  suite  one  day 
by  three  Babis.  The  attempt  was  a  failure,  the  king  escaping  with 
only  a  slight  wound,  but  the  recoil  of  the  blow  on  the  Babis  was  ter- 
rible. One  of  the  assailants  was  killed  on  the  spot,  the  other  two  were 
tortured  with  fiendish  cruelty  to  induce  them  to  reveal  their  fellow  con- 
spirators, but  without  avail.  Some  thirty  residents  of  the  capitol  were 
suspected  of  being  Babis,  were  seized,  and  after  a  month's  deliberation 
on  the  part  of  the  Shah  and  his  court,  they  were  put  to  death  in  a  variety 
of  methods  the  most  cruel  and  barbarous,  large  numbers  of  the  nobility 
the  ecclesiastics  and  other  citizens  of  Teheran  being  forced  to  aid  in  their 
execution,  in  evidence  of  their  loyalty  to  the  Shah.  Among  the  victims 
was  the  gifted  woman  Kurra'l-Ayn.  who  for  some  months  had  been 
under  arrest  and  surveillance  in  the  city.  All  the  victims  met  their 
death  with  stoical,  almost  superhuman  fortitude,  refusing  the  pardon 


458 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


offered  them  if  they  would  but  recant.  Some  even  in  the  midst  of  their 
prolonged  suffering  sang  or  shouted  songs  of  triumph.  The  French 
writer  Renau  speaks  of  this  massacre,  as  a  day  "without  a  parallel"  per- 
haps in  the  history  of  the  world.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  some 
of  these  unfortunates  had  never  seen  the  man  whom  they  called  master, 
yet  thus  rapturously  did  they  offer  up  their  lives  as  a  testimony  of  their 
faith  in  him.  This  ferocity  of  vengeance  checked,  though  it  did  not  by 
any  means  extirpate,  Babism.  While  it  put  an  end  to  the  revolutionary 
tendencies  of  its  more  restless  spirits,  secret  partisanship  continued 
to  keep  alive  the  heresy. 

After  a  time,  however,  there  came  a  lull.  The  Babi  leaders  adopted 
a  new  policy — the  policy  of  concealment  and  secret  propagandism.  avoid- 
ing all  open  conflicts  with  the  government.  It  was  under  the  direction  of 
a  new  leader,  Mirza  Huseyn  Ali,  called  Beha  u'llah,  a  half  brother  of 
Subh-i-Ezel  (the  successor  of  the  Bab)  that  this  took  place.  Subh-i-Ezel, 
to  save  his  life,  disguised  himself  and  fled,  and  for  a  long  time  remained 
hidden.  When,  at  length,  he  ventured  to  reappear,  it  was  across  the  fron- 
tier, in  Turkish  territory.  As  he  was  more  of  a  scholar  and  a  devotee 
than  a  man  of  affairs,  the  interests  of  the  Babi  church  were  plainly  be- 
ginning to  suffer.  Too  many  new  claimants  of  the  headship,  new  incar- 
nations of  Godhead,  were  allowed  to  manifest  themselves  and  distract 
the  church.  The  Babis  were  allowed  to  take  up  a  too  irreconcilable  atti- 
tude toward  the  Persian  authorities. 

Beha'u'llah,  thirteen  years  older  than  his  brother,  and  a  man  of  more 
resolute  spirit  and  executive  ability,  to  whom  much  of  the  administrative 
work  of  the  church  had  been  already  intrusted,  became  convinced  that 
Subh-i-Ezel  was  not  equal  to  the  situation.  A  community  of  religious 
enthusiasts,  revolutionaries,  visionaries  and  speculative  mystics  (for  of 
such  material  the  Babi  church  was  in  a  great  measure  composed)  needed 
a  firmer  hand  than  his  gentle  and  contemplative  half-brother  could 
supply. 

For  a  while  the  practical  and  determined  Beha'u'llah  managed 
things  in  his  brother's  name.  But  at  length  he  concluded  that  he  might 
as  well  have  the  official  position  as  be  the  unrevered  power  behind  the 
throne.  It  was  not  a  difficult  thing  to  do.  He  had  but  to  proclaim 
himself  as  the  real  Point  of  Revelation,  the  long  expected  One  who  was 
to  appear,  of  whose  great  glory  and  full  divinity  in  the  time  to  come 
the  Babi  had  at  first  prophesied.  As  all  the  Babis  agreed,  the  sign  of 
"Him  whom  God  shall  manifest,"  who  was  to  perfect  and  complete  the 
Babi  religion,  was  the  revelation  of  verses.   This  was  a  very  easy  miracle, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


459 


and  so  in  the  year  1866  or  1867,  at  Adrianople,  whither  the  Babi  exiles 
had  been  removed  because  of  the  strife  and  disorders  they  had  created 
while  at  Baghdad,  Beha'u'llah  "revealed"  sundry  signs  in  eloquent  Arabic 
and  Persian  wherein  he  summoned  all  the  Babis  to  acknowledge  him  as 
their  supreme  and  sole  chief  and  spiritual  guide.  Beha'u'llah  was  to  be 
revered  as  the  final  Point  or  Goal  of  Revelation,  to  whom  all  the  verses 
and  prophecies  of  the  Bab  pointed,  and  the  Bab  was  no  longer  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  veritable  manifestation  of  the  Divine  but  as  a  mere 
precursor  of  the  more  perfect,  the  ophany  of  Beha'u'llah.  Subh-i-Ezel, 
who  had  been  the  appointed  successor  and  for  so  many  years  had  been 
revered  as  their  authoritative  teacher  and  incarnation  of  heavenly  wis- 
dom and  virtue,  was  to  be  branded  as  the  "First  Letter  of  Denial"  of  the 
New  Dispensation. 

This  proclamation  shook  the  Babi  church  to  its  center  and  the  com- 
munities were  rent  asunder  by  the  most  bitter  of  schisms  ;  the  majority  of 
the  Babis,  especially  the  younger,  accepted  Beha'u'llah  as  their  master. 
The  other  leaders  who  had  been  personal  friends  of  the  Bab  and  had  ex- 
posed their  lives  in  his  behalf,  stood  stanchly  by  his  nominee,  the  gentle 
visionary  Subh-i-Ezel.  But,  one  by  one,  they  dropped  away,  victims  of 
the  unscrupulous  violence  of  their  rivals.  Two  of  the  Letters  of  the  Living, 
the  original  apostles,  were  assassinated,  one  at  Tabeiz,  the  other  at  Ker- 
bela.  At  Adrainople  and  Acca  half  a  dozen  more  of  the  older  leaders,  who 
stood  by  Ezel,  were  stabbed  or  poisoned  by  the  followers  of  Beha.  From 
sixteen  to  twenty  of  the  older  leaders  were  thus  removed,  and  it  is 
charged  in  the  Hasht-Bisht  that  Beha'u'llah  even  made  an  attempt 
(which  miscarried  only  by  accident)  to  poison  his  half-brother.  It  was 
not  proved  that  he  ordered  the  assassinations ;  but  he  was  evidently 
gratified  by  their  occurence,  and  said  not  a  word  to  prevent  them. 

At  any  rate,  if  the  end  justifies  the  means,  the  means  were  approved 
by  the  victory  achieved.  The  assassinations  were  a  success.  The  weak 
Subh-i-Ezel  was  deserted.  The  great  majority  joined  Beha's  party.  The 
Turkish  government,  to  put  a  stop  to  the  wrangling  and  disorders, 
exiled  Subh-i-Ezel  to  Famagustain  Cyprus,  where  he  still  lives  in  ob- 
scurity. Beha  was  sent  to  Acca,  where  he  peacefully  passed  away  in 
1892.  His  son  Abbas  Effendi  succeeded  him,  who  is  now  looked  upon 
as  a  spiritual  head  by  all  the  Babis.  Before  his  death  he  had  worked  a 
momentous  revolution  in  Babism.  As  soon  as  he  was  established  in  his 
authority,  he  began  to  exercise  the  privilege  which  all  the  Babis  recog- 
nized as  belonging  to  the  final  Point  of  Revelation,  to  abrogate,  change, 
develop  and  supercede  the  earlier  revelations.   He  discouraged  the  vis- 


460 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


ionary  speculations  of  his  followers,  made  the  religion  more  moral  and 
less  metaphysical,  and  abolished  many  useless  and  impractical  regula- 
tions ;  especially  he  did  everything  he  could  to  conciliate  the  temporal 
authorities,  even  the  Shah  of  Persia,  whom  the  older  Babis  were  accus- 
tomed to  revere  as  the  Nero  of  their  faith.  Believing  that  the  new  faith 
could  grow  better  by  assimilating  the  elements  already  estranged  from 
the  orthodox  Musselmen  church,  he  strove  steadily  to  diminish  the  ratio 
of  Mohammedan  thought  in  it  and  to  seek  a  better  understanding  with 
the  Christians,  Jews,  and  Zoroastrians.  In  short,  he  tried  to  make 
Babism  henceforth  more  of  a  universal  system  suitable  to  all  mankind. 
The  older  Babi  scriptures  and  epistles,  with  their  magniloquent  rhapso- 
dies, foggymysticism  and  wild  visions  of  the  return  of  the  Imam-Mahdi 
and  the  marvels  of  the  new  age,  he  allowed  to  fall  into  innocuous  desue- 
tude. The  earlier  history  of  the  origin  and  rise  of  the  Bab  and  his  church 
was  written  over  in  an  entirely  new  vein ;  the  Bab  was  represented  as  a 
mere  forerunner  of  Beha ;  Subh-i-Ezel  was  described  as  a  coward  and 
fugitive ;  his  earlier  friends,  Hazrat-i-Kuddus  and  "Consolation  of  Eyes" 
were  craftily  depreciated,  and  Beha'u'llah  and  his  Neo-Babi  doctrines 
were  profusely  glorified,  and  every  expression  of  detestation  of  the  Shah 
which  might  interfere  with  the  Beha's  new  policy  of  conciliating  the  gov- 
ernment was  eliminated.  The  effort  to  metamorphose  thus  radically  the 
whole  record  of  Babism  fortunately  failed  through  the  fact  that  many 
of  the  early  documents  had  previously  passed  into  European  hands ;  but 
the  effort  to  establish  pacific  relations  with  the  Persian  government 
proved  successful,  and  for  thirty  years  the  Babis  have  been  free  from 
public  persecution,  by  a  secret  propaganda  they  have  so  diffused  their 
doctrines  that  their  numbers  are  now  estimated  about  three  millions. 

We  will  now  briefly  consider  the  Babis  literature.  The  writings  of 
the  Bab  are  extremely  voluminous ;  one  of  his  followers  claimed  that  he 
wrote  not  less  than  a  million  verses.  In  general  they  are  called  the 
Beyan,  or  Exposition,  although  in  a  more  special  sense  this  term  is 
applied  only  to  such  compositions  as  have  the  form  of  Arabic  verse,  a 
form  considered  pre-eminently  inspired.  Besides  the  Arabic  verses, 
there  are  the  commentaries  on  the  Sura  of  Joseph,  the  Bismillah  and  the 
Wa'l-ase,  and  a  larger  commentary  on  the  Koran ;  the  Book  of  Recom- 
pense, the  Book  of  Names,  the  Book  of  Figures,  and  a  large  number 
of  prayers,  supplications  and  miscellaneous  writings.  Subh-i-Ezel  wrote 
"The  Book  of  Light,"  and  many  other  works.  Mr.  E.  G.  Brown,  who 
has  made  a  more  thorough  study  of  these  books  than  any  other  Euro- 
pean, says  they  contain  "noble  ideals,"  subtle  metaphysical  conceptions, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


461 


and  splendid,  though  ill-defined  aspirations.  But  they  are  so  lost  in 
trackless  mazes  of  rhapsody  and  mysticism,  so  weighed  down  by  trivial 
injunctions  and  impracticable  ordinances  that  no  casual  reader  can  hope 
to  find  them." 

The  leading-  doctrine  is  that  of  Manfestations.  Outside  of  God 
there  is  no  other  God.  From  Him  all  existences  emanate;  but  they 
suffer  diminution  and  imperfection  in  so  doing.  The  world  emanates 
from  divinity  by  the  action  of  seven  attributes  or  letters ;  force,  power, 
will,  action,  condescension,  glory,  and  revelation.  In  the  sympathetic 
stream  that  passes  between  the  Infinite  and  the  finite,  God  shows  his 
living  nature  by  his  continued  revelations  with  his  creatures.  All  the 
great  prophets  and  sages  are  the  works  of  God;  they  come  from  him 
more  really  and  return  to  him  more  directly  than  other  men.  As  men 
cannot  know  the  eternal  essence  of  God  but  only  the  manifestation  of  the 
Divine  Will,  there  occur  from  time  to  time  incarnations  of  the  primal 
will.  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  Mohammed,  were  all  such  intermedia- 
ries between  God  and  man.  Each  was  successively  more  full  of  truth 
and  grace  than  his  predecessor,  and  revealed  sufficient  for  the  time.  All 
these  theophanies  are  identical  in  their  essence,  and  differ  only  in  cir- 
cumstances, just  as  the  sun  which  shines  to-day  is  the  same  as  the  sun 
which  shone  yesterday.  The  periods  when  these  great  prophets  or  Imams 
flourish  are  the  theophanic  days,  and  the  periods  between  are  the  periods 
of  occultation.  But  even  in  this  night,  the  last  revealer  still  lives  in  con- 
cealment and  communicates  with  his  followers  by  certain  gates.  When 
the  revealer  is  about  to  reincarnate  himself  again  this  great  event  is 
preceded  by  a  number  of  prophetic  gates  or  channels  of  communication. 

After  these  new  gates  or  seers  appear,  and  schisms  and  certain  other 
signs  are  observed,  then  the  heaven  of  will,  the  proof  of  God,  manifests 
himself.  Coupled  with  this  doctrine  is  a  curious  belief  called  that  of 
"The  Return."  In  the  first  Vahid  or  section  of  nineteen  chapters  in  the 
Beyan  it  is  asserted  that  Mohammed,  the  great  prophet,  Fatima,  his 
daughter,  the  twelve  Imams  and  the  four  gates  (who  followed  the  twelfth 
Imam),  have  returned  to  the  life  of  the  world  with  such  as  believed  in 
them.  In  the  second  Vahid,  it  is  taught  that  by  the  resurrection  is 
meant  the  new  manifestation;  by  the  questioning  of  the  tomb,  the  tid- 
ings of  it  brought  by  its  messengers  to  those  who  slumber  in  ignorance ; 
by  the  raising  of  the  dead,  the  wakening  of  those  who  lie  thus  dead  in 
ignorance,  and  so  on;  the  ideas  which  prevail  of  a  corporeal  resurrection; 
a  material  heaven  and  hell,  and  the  like,  are  mere  figments  of  the  imagina- 
tion.   Haji  Mirza  Yahya,  the  Babi  historian,  who  had  been  a  personal 


462 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


friend  and  follower  of  the  Bab,  declares  that  this  doctrine  of  the  return 
means  neither  incarnation,  absorption,  nor  transmigration.  But  he 
admits  that  "none  knoweth  it  save  those  who  have  returned,"  and,  if  it 
is  not  substantially  a  doctrine  of  soul-transmigration  it  is  difficult  to  say 
what  it  is.  Not  only  in  the  Apostles  of  the  Unity,  but  also  in  the  bosoms 
of  all  the  faithful,  according  to  their  respective  careers  and  missions, 
does  this  communication  of  the  divine  and  reincarnation  of  the  great  of 
the  past  occur.  When  one  of  them  was  found  fulfilling  a  certain  role 
which  recalled  that  of  some  holy  saint  preceding  him,  it  was  said  among 
the  Babis,  "That  is  the  Imam-Riza,  or  Ali,  or  Jesus  Christ,  returned." 
Although  the  Babis  constantly  affirm  their  fidelity  to  the  doctrine  of 
divine  unity,  it  is  plain  that  we  have  here  very  potent  germs  of  a  luxu- 
riant polytheism,  and  if  the  religion  goes  on  we  shall  one  day  have  per- 
sonal cults,  symbols  and  temples.  Is  it,  after  all,  the  long  smothered 
spirit  of  ancient  paganism  that  is  reasserting  itself  so  strangely  against 
the  too  bare  and  hard  monotheism  of  Islam  which  had  been  imposed 
upon  it  by  force  of  arms  ? 

A  second  peculiar  doctrine  of  Babism  is  the  sacred  character  of  the 
number  19.  As  the  word  almy,  "he  who  gives  life,"  has  19  for  its  numer- 
ical equivalent,  this,  it  was  argued,  is  the  divine  number.  As  the  world 
is  only  a  divine  emanation  and  rests  on  these  same  principles  of  life, 
this  number  19  is  found  at  the  basis  of  all  things  rightly  organized.  Over 
the  whole  world  this  number  should  reign.  Accordingly  the  Bab  ordered 
his  followers  to  reconstitute  all  divisions  of  time  and  space  according  to 
the  sacred  number.  In  the  Babi  year  there  were  to  be  19  months;  and 
every  month  to  have  19  days,  every  day  19  hours,  and  every  hour 
19  minutes.  All  measures  of  length  and  weight  were  also  revolution- 
ized by  a  division  into  19.  In  the  courts,  the  temples,  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical organizations,  everything  was  to  be  regulated  by  the  same  numer- 
ical cycle.  Naturally,  therefore,  the  Apostles,  or  "Letters  of  the  Living," 
as  the  Bab  practically  called  them,  were  eighteen,  who,  with  the  Bab, 
constitute  again  the  sacred  number.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that,  although 
the  Bab  is  the  Point,  the  Divine  Manifestation,  yet  it  is  not  in  him  by 
himself  that  his  virtue  is  held  to  be  seated,  but  in  that  divine  unity 
formed  by  this  inspired  college  of  19.  Hence  when  the  Bab  was  put  to 
death,  the  divine  wisdom  and  authority  which  resided  in  him,  constitut- 
ing him  the  Point  of  Revelation,  did  not  cease  to  be,  but  joined  itself 
to  the  activity  residing  with  the  rest  of  the  sacred  college,  and  the  signs 
of  the  Godhead  appeared  in  the  next  in  dignity  among  the  sacred 
Letters.    At  the  last  judgment,  the  Point  of  Revelation  is  to  preside. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


463 


All  the  pure,  in  recompense  for  their  virtue,  will  have  given  to  them  the 
full  revelation  of  truth ;  thus  prepared,  they  will  be  united  with  God,  to 
live  eternally  with  Him,  participating  in  all  His  perfections  and  happi- 
ness. The  wicked  will  be  annihilated.  On  the  earth,  when  the  Babi 
faith  comes  to  its  own,  there  will  be  established  a  faith  at  once  mon- 
archical, theocratic,  and  democratic.  On  the  places  where  the  Babi 
leaders  died  as  martyrs,  the  holiest  sanctuaries  will  be  built.  In  the 
temples,  there  will  be  employed  the  most  precious  materials  and  richest 
stuffs  and  every  kind  of  costly  decorations,  with  lofty  thrones  for  the 
priests.  The  faithful  will  have  talismans — star-shaped  amulets,  in  which 
they  can  put  entire  confidence.  In  the  Babi  state,  when  it  can  be  set  up, 
the  unbelievers  who  reject  the  Bab,  will  have  no  legal  rights.  All  their 
property  may  rightly  be  taken  from  them,  and  five  provinces,  at  the  very 
heart  of  the  Persian  empire,  are  named  in  which  they  are  not  even  to  be 
allowed  to  reside.  When  a  town  or  province  of  the  unbelievers  is  con- 
quered, one-fifth  of  the  spoils  belong  to  the  head  of  the  church,  then  the 
warriors  are  to  take  what  they  need  and  the  rest  is  given  to  the  poor, 
but  the  lives  of  the  unbelievers  are  not  to  be  taken  simply  because  of 
unbelief. 

The  Babi  may  not  engage  in  public  prayer,  except  upon  specially 
solemn  occasion,  and  the  ablutions  and  the  doctrines  of  ceremonial  im- 
purity of  which  the  Moslems  make  so  much  are  entirely  abrogated,  since 
they  give  God  neither  pain  nor  pleasure.  These  two  reforms  would 
remove  very  great  sources  of  national  and  religious  friction,  and  be  a 
genuine  service  (say  those  who  know  the  East)  to  oriental  society.  To 
the  government,  a  certain  tax,  or  per  cent,  on  every  miskal  of  gold  or 
silver  is  due.  If  one  pays,  he  fulfills  his  duty.  If  he  does  not  he  should 
not  be  constrained,  but  the  punishment  should  be  left  to  God.  The 
penalties  and  chastisements  allowed  by  Babism  are  very  mild.  The 
death  penalty  is  never  mentioned.  Torture  and  blows  are  formally  pro- 
hibited. The  legal  penalties  are  of  two  kinds.  The  first  is  a  fine  nineteen 
times  the  injury,  or  some  higher  multiple  of  nineteen,  according  to  the 
gravity  of  the  case.  The  second  kind  of  penalty  consists  in  interdiction 
of  conjugal  indulgences  for  a  number  of  days  or  months,  according  to 
the  gravity  of  the  transgression.  For  example,  if  a  man  strikes  a  child 
he  is  prohibited  from  approaching  his  wife  for  ninety  days.  Begging, 
so  common  in  the  East,  and  regarded  as  rather  meritorious  than  involv- 
ing any  disgrace,  is  strictly  forbidden.'  Everything  belongs  to  God,  and 
the  rich  hold  their  wealth  only  in  trust  for  Him  and  must  give  liberally 
to  the  cause  of  religion  and  to  those  who  have  not  enough. 


404 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


The  Bab  encouraged  commerce  and  recommended  tranquillity  of 
mind,  affectionate  relations  and  an  extreme  politeness.  Discussion 
should  be  avoided.  The  books  of  the  faith  are  to  be  diligently  studied, 
but  writings  alien  to  the  Babi  doctrine  should  be  avoided  and  even 
destroyed.  Asceticism  is  reproved.  The  Babis  should  not  fear  that 
which  gives  pleasure.  Rich  clothes,  silken  goods,  embroideries  and 
jewels  not  only  may,  but  ought  to  be  procured  by  the  faithful  according 
to  the  measure  of  their  resources.  Especially  at  weddings  should  those 
who  are  able  adorn  themselves  richly ;  but,  if  they  are  not  able,  they 
should  not  mourn,  for  their  Lord,  at  the  last  judgment,  will  bestow  on 
his  faithful  servants  these  rewards. 

The  Bab  attached  extreme  importance  to  marriage  and  to  the  estab- 
lishment and  upholding  of  the  family — that  great  desideratum  in  Asiatic 
civilizations.  To  continue  the  family  line  is  a  religious  duty,  and  after 
eleven  years  of  age  marriage  is  recommended.  A  second  wife  is  per- 
mitted but  not  recommended.  Concubinage,  a  common  vice  of  the  East, 
is  severely  indicted.  There  were  important  measures  in  the  interest  of 
woman.  But  the  Bab  did  not  content  himself  with  these.  He  also  pro- 
hibited divorce  and  abrogated  the  use  of  the  veil.  The  great  plague  of 
Persian  and  most  Moslem  societies  is  not  so  much  the  license  they  give 
to  have  more  than  one  wife,  but  the  freedom  which  the  laws  of  divorce 
allow  to  the  husband  to  change  his  wife  at  any  moment  and  on  the  most 
frivolous  pretext.  The  transitory  nature  of  the  usual  marriage  has 
done  much  more  than  polygamy  or  concubinage  to  deprave  the  relations 
of  the  sexes  and  render  real  marriage  unions  impossible.  Most  women 
from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  years  old,  says  Gobineau,  have  had  two 
or  three  husbands.  The  Bab  struck  at  these  disorders  by  prohibiting 
divorce  except  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity,  and  then  only  after  waiting 
a  year,  and  by  interdicting  the  covering  of  woman's  face  with  the  veil — 
a  custom,  Eastern  observers  say,  which  gives  especial  opportunity  and 
encouragement  to  the  most  unprincipled  intrigues.  Those  who  became 
Babis  were  to  associate  together  freely,  though  discreetly,  without  regard 
to  sex.  At  the  hospitable  table  which  the  well-to-do  Babi  was  to  spread 
women  as  well  as  men  were  to  be  admitted.  Women  might  also  go  on 
pilgrimages,  but  they  were  to  be  encouraged  rather  to  attend  to  their 
homes  and  children  ;  if  they  go  on  pilgrimages  they  are  to  be  very  careful 
about  over-fatigue  or  danger  to  their  health.  No  child  is  to  receive  a 
blow  before  five  years  of  age ;  after  that  time  it  must  not  receive  more 
than  five  blows  at  a  time  and  these  must  not  be  on  the  bare  skin.  Parents 


RELIGIONS  OF^PERSlA. 


465 


should  desire  the  young  to  laugh,  play  games  and  to  do  everything 
which  will  make  them  happy. 

According  to  the  Bab  no  divine  revelation  is  final.  His  was  the 
latest,  but  not  the  last  manifestation  of  the  deity  in  human  form.  There 
are  numerous  passages  in  his  writings  which  intimate  that  he  is  but 
the  forerunner  of  One  to  come.  The  expression  frequently  occurs,  "He 
whom  God  shall  manifest."  His  followers  have  never  been  agreed  as  to 
the  exact  meaning  of  this  phrase.  The  prisoner  at  Acca  came  to  interpret 
it  as  referring  primarily  to  himself,  and  boldly  claimed  that  he  was  the 
one  predicted,  setting  aside  the  Bab's  nomination  of  his  brother  to  the 
headship.  The  larger  portion  of  the  Babis  have  come  to  acknowledge 
his  claims,  yielding  to  him  divine  homage.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
Beha,  i.  e..  Light.  Often  he  is  designated  as  "Beha  'Ullah,"  or  "Light 
of  God,"  and  his  followers  are  known  as  Behais  as  well  as  Babis.  The 
younger  brother  is  commonly  known  as  Subhi-Ezel,  i.  e.,  "Light  of 
Eternity,"  and  his  disciples  are  called  Sub-i-Ezelis.  Though  the  Beha 
proclaimed  himself  to  be  the  divine  being  incarnate,  he  made  no  pre- 
tense of  working  miracles,  but  like  the  Arabian  prophet  and  like  the 
Bab,  he  offered  as  proof  of  his  claims  simply  and  alone  the  superlative 
excellence  of  his  compositions.  Up  to  the  time  of  his  recent  death  he 
resided  in  no  small  degree  of  comfort  at  Acca  in  a  mansion  encompassed 
by  orange  groves  furnished  him  by  the  Turkish  government,  numerous 
Persian  attendants  surrounding  the  place  carefully  guarding  all  approach 
of  strangers  to  their  revered  master,  keeping  up  an  air  of  impressive  awe 
as  was  supposed  to  befit  the  abode  of  so  exalted  a  personage.  In  his 
writings  more  is  made  of  himself  and  his  own  teachings  than  of  the  Bab 
and  his  prescriptions.  Among  other  products  of  his  pen  are  noticeable 
several  letters  addressed  to  sovereigns  of  Europe  and  Asia  and  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  in  which  he  appeals,  as  by  divine  author- 
ity, for  the  cessation  of  wars,  for  international  comity  and  good  feeling, 
for  the  prevalence  of  justice  and  righteousness,  and  for  the  recognition 
of  his  claims  as  the  present  representative  of  God  on  earth.  Since  his 
death  it  is  not  known  what  position  is  taken  by  his  followers  with  respect 
to  a  successor,  but  up  to  the  present  time  the  Behais  have  been  gaining 
converts  widely  throughout  Persia.  He  taught  that  every  age  must  have 
its  own  prophet  inspired  from  God.  He  claimed  that  he  was  inspired 
and  that  he  had  frequent  communications  from  God  telling  him  how 
to  direct  the  people.  He  openly  claimed  to  be  the  Imam,  and  he  taught 
that  the  priesthood  and  the  religion  were  corrupt  and  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  renew  them.   He  did  not  oppose  the  Koran,  but  at  the  same 


466 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


time  said  that  every  age  needs  a  new  Bible.  He  claimed  to  have  received 
a  Bible  from  God. 

He  taught  the  equality  of  both  sexes  and  paid  homage  to  woman. 
He  showed  that  it  was  against  the  law  of  God  to  marry  more  than  one 
woman  or  to  keep  concubines.  Further,  it  is  against  the  law  of  society 
and  the  happiness  of  women  for  man  to  have  more  than  one  wife.  The 
law  of  divorce,  which  is  common  among  Mohammedans,  was  not  prac- 
ticed by  the  new  sect.  The  place  of  women  among  them  is  the  same 
as  among  Christians.  The  prophet  taught  that  the  spirit  of  charity  ought 
to  be  as  a  flame  of  fire  in  the  hearts  of  his  followers.  He  said  we  cannot 
please  God  if  we  see  our  brother  in  need  and  do  not  help  him;  if  we 
pray  He  will  not  hear  us,  if  we  worship  Him  He  will  turn  his  face  away 
from  us.  Believing  this,  the  spirit  of  charity  is  very  strong  among  them 
and  they  support  the  needy.  The  use  of  wine  and  all  intoxicants  is 
strictly  forbidden.  They  are  very  kind  to  people  of  other  faiths  who  are 
not  Mohammedans,  them,  they  hate.  The  Babis  charge  the  Christians 
with  Jewish  blindness  in  not  recognizing  their  prophet  as  the  returning 
Christ,  with  a  new  gospel.  But  no  true  Christian  can  study  the  principles 
of  Babism  without  a  painful  conviction  of  its  entire  unworthiness  to  be 
called  a  gospel  in  any  sense.  It  is  a  system  of  crude,  mystical  ideas, 
barren  of  all  spiritual  value  to  humanity.  Religion  is  made  by  it  to  consist 
chiefly  in  the  worship  of  God  as  manifested  in  the  assumed  incarnations. 
Nothing,  scarcely,  is  taught  of  the  Divine  Holiness,  nor  of  sin,  nor  of 
repentance ;  nothing  of  Divine  love,  nor  of  a  Savior,  nor  of  holy  living. 
The  principles  of  morality  inculcated  are  indeed  somewhat  higher  than 
those  current  among  the  Moslems  and  emphasis  is  laid  on  sincerity,  as 
all  essential  in  religion,  a  quality  conspicuously  absent  with  the  Shiahs, 
but  in  fact  the  followers  of  the  Beha  pay  slight  heed  to  these  nobler 
teachings  while  they  seize  eagerly  upon  the  freedom  granted  them  from 
the  exactions  of  Mohammedan  law.  They  are  addicted  to  drinking  wine 
even  to  excess.  As  to' the  doctrine  of  the  equality  of  men  and  women 
which  the  Bab  enjoined,  it  is  but  partially  maintained  in  practice,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  in  respect  to  other  of  his  teachings  intended  to 
elevate  the  position  of  woman.  Indeed,  what  valuable  fruit  could  we 
expect  from  a  religious  system  which  argues  against  creation  and  the 
resurrection,  which  has  no  adequate  conception  of  the  nature  of  sin, 
presents  no  higher  motive  to  goodness  than  the  extinction  and  final 
absorption  of  the  human  soul  into  the  Divine  Being,  and  holds  up  no 
fear  of  punishment  nor  serious  loss  to  transgressors  of  the  moral  law. 
It  is  indeed  amazing,  that  men  are  so  ready  to  devote  themselves  to 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


4  07 


death,  at  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  for  a  system  of  religious  beliefs  so 
empty  of  all  practical  benefit.  The  enmity  between  them  and  the  ortho- 
dox Mohammedans  has  been  very  severe.  From  the  killing  of  Bab 
until  the  present  time,  they  have  been  trying  to  kill  the  Shah.  In  their 
first  attempt  they  failed,  but  May  i,  1896,  while  the  Shah  was  worshiping 
in  the  most  holy  place  in  the  mosque,  he  became  the  victim  of  a 
fanatic  Babi  who  had  disguised  himself  as  a  woman.  This  Babi,  while 
under  disguise,  shot  the  king,  who  died  two  minutes  afterwards.  Some 
thought  the  government  would  again  persecute  them,  but  there  were  some 
hindrances  which  would  not  permit  this.  In  the  first  place  their  religion 
is  kept  a  secret;  it  is  impossible  to  know  who  belongs  to  the  new  sect. 
Secondly,  many  of  the  high  classes  and  royal  officers  belong  to  this 
sect,  and  for  this  reason  it  would  be  impossible  to  persecute  them. 
Thirdly,  their  number  to-day  would  reach  3,000,000,  or  about  that,  and 
to  kill  this  enormous  company  would  certainly  damage  the  government. 

Their  antagonism  against  the  government,  and  against  orthodox 
Mohammedism,  is  caused  entirely  by  the  lack  of  freedom  of  religious 
worship.  We  cannot  regard  it  other  than  wild  fanaticism ;  and  the  worst 
of  it  is,  that  it  is  fanatacism  which  has  instigated  some  of  its  followers 
to  the  assassination  of  its  adversaries,  giving  color  to  the  prediction  of 
many  that,  if  the  Babi  should  ever  attain  to  a  position  of  political 
power,  they  would  prove  the  most  intolerant  and  vengeful  of  all  sects. 
Our  sympathies  can  but  go  out  to  them,  for  the  terrible  sufferings  which 
they  have  undergone  in  behalf  of  what  they  hold  to  be  the  truth,  and 
above  all  their  pitiful  blindness  and  folly.  The  chief  virtue  to  be  laid 
to  their  credit  is  their  mutual  devotion  and  fraternal  affection.  This, 
and  the  religious  liberty  they  practice,  are  the  chief  ties  that  bind 
them  together  as  a  sect,  and  in  these,  doubtless,  lies  the  secret  of  their 
constant  growth.  They  are  very  warm  friends  of  the  Christians,  plac- 
ing in  them  the  greatest  confidence;  sometimes  they  will  even  lodge  in 
the  houses  of  Christians,  and  eat  with  them  without  questioning.  This 
a  strict  Mohammedan  would  never  do.  They  readily  allow  the  Christian 
to  preach  to  them  and  to  discuss  religion  with  them.  Yet  it  is  not  an 
easy  matter  to  convert  them,  for  one  must  know  their  manner  of  life 
and  religious  doctrines  to  successfully  meet  their  arguments.  A  few, 
however,  have  been  truly  converted.  This  filled  the  Mohammedans  with 
hatred,  both  against  the  Christians  and  the  converts.  When  the  Chris- 
tian shows  the  superiority  of  Christ,  and  of  His  doctrine,  over  that  of 
their  Prophet  Bab,  they  are  forced  into  silence.  They  are  now  securing 
many  converts  from  Mohammedism,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  time  will 


468 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


469 


come  when  religious  toleration  will  be  obtained  by  them.  This  will  also 
give  the  Christians  a  good  opportunity  of  preaching  the  gospel.  It  is  a 
matter  of  some  hopefulness  to  the  Christian  that  these  people  listen  to 
the  gospel  with  the  greatest  readiness,  and  consequently  by  reading  with 
them  it  seems  possible  to  lead  them  to  see  the  errors  into  which  they 
have  fallen.  There  is  greater  encouragement  to  missionary  effort  in  the 
fact  that  these  people  are  everywhere  undermining  or  relaxing  the  ortho- 
dox Moslem  belief,  and  so  are  opening  the  doors  of  conscience  and 
faith  among  the  Mohammedans  to  the  saving  truths  of  the  gospel  of  the 
Crucified  Son  of  God. 

There  are  about  ten  thousand  Babis  in  the  United  States.  The  Babis 
started  in  the  United  States  since  the  Columbian  Exposition  (1893).  Now  they 
have  800  believers  in  "Chicago,  1,200  in  New  York  City,  and  the  rest  are  scattered 
throughout  the  United  States. 

The  following  are  a  few  extracts  from  the  report  of  the  Behaists: 

The  following  is  the  report  of  the  meeting  of  Behaists  in  New  York,  as 
stenographically  taken  by  two  stenographers,  Mr.  Harris  and  Miss  Stout,  at  the 
Genealogical  Hall,  on  Thursday  evening,  May  10th,  1900,  this  being  the  ad- 
journed meeting  of  Tuesday,  May  8th.  The  meeting  was  presided  over  by  How- 
ard MacNutt,  and  on  the  platform  were  Abdel  Kerin  Effendi  and  two  inter- 
preters, Mr.  Haddad  for  the  Arabic,  and  Mirza  Raffle  for  the  Persian. 

The  following  proceedings  were  had: 

Mr.  Haddad — Abdel  Kerin  Effendi  wants  me  to  say  to  you  that  every 
one  of  us  must  praise  and  thank  God  for  His  grace  and  bounty  in  maintaining 
peace  and  perfect  harmony  among  us,  and  that  all  of  us  have  to  turn  our  faces 
towards  our  Lord,  Abbas  Effendi,  and  that  any  one  who  violates  this  is  just 
as  if  he  had  turned  against  God  and  violated  the  Covenant  of  God;  and  he  also 
wants  to  announce  to  you  that  he  has  laid  down  some  rules  and  laws  for  the 
government  and  protection  of  the  truth  in  New  York,  and  that  these  laws  are 
to  be  kept  with  Mr.  MacNutt,  and  are  to  be  translated  into  Arabic  and  sent  to 
our  lord,  Abbas  Effendi,  to  be  approved  of,  and  then  every  one  of  us  has  to  fol- 
low these  laws  as  recorded  by  Abdel  Kerim  Effendi  and  approved  by  our  Lord, 
Abbas  Effendi. 

Mr.  MacNutt — I  stand  tonight  in  a  very  difficult  position.  I  have  just  come 
down  in  the  car  from  my  home  sitting  beside  our  beloved  friend,  Abdel  Kerim 
Effendi,  unable  to  speak  a  word  with  him,  and  yet  he  is  a  treasury  loaded  with 
riches  which  are  mine  if  I  could  reach  them,  if  I  had  the  key  of  language.  In 
the  course  of  conversation  at  my  house,  Abdel  Kerin  Effendi  has  conveyed  to 
me  his  wishes,  his  commands,  concerning  the  Truth  and  its  administration  in 
this  city.  I  believe  him  to  be,  as  you  must  believe  him  to  be,  the  emissary,  the 
messenger  of  Abbas  Effendi,  our  Lord  and  Master;  and  when  he  speaks  to  me 
the  authority  of  Abbas  Effendi  is  conveyed.  I  shall  endeavor  to  convey  to  you 
as  well  as  I  ean,  in  language,  by  my  force  of  mentality,  what  he  has  said.  If 
there  is  a  single  point  which  you  would  question,  and  I  urge  you  particularly  to 
question  if  you  do  not  understand,  if  you  will  signify  that  by  simply  raising 
your  hand,  I  will  submit  the  question  through  Mr.  Haddad  in  Arabic,  and 
through  Mirza  Raffle  in  Persian,  that  we  may  know  what  he  says.  I  do  not 
ask  you  to  take  what  I  say  at  all  for  fear  that  I  may  make  a  mistake. 

And  just  here  let  me  say,  as  it  fits  in  this  place,  let  me  tell  a  story  he  told 
me.  He  said  that  in  Bagdad  when  the  Manifestation  was  there  a  believer  came 
to  him  and  said  that  he  had  a  very  troublesome  neighbor,  that  this  man  was 
wicked  and  hated  him  and  lost  no  opportunity  for  abusing  him,  and  after  the 
Manifestation  had  heard  his  story  he  said  to  this  believer,  "Go  and  kill  him." 


4711 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


And  the  man  went  off  and  bought  a  knife  and  dagger  and  put  it  in  the  folds 
of  his  garment.  That  the  Manifestation  immediately  after  stating  this  to  the 
believer  had  sent  a  messenger  in  another  way  to  the  troublesome  neighbor  and 
upon  some  pretext  had  gotten  him  away  from  the  place,  so  that  when  the  be- 
liever upon  murder  bent  reached  the  spot  the  neighbor  was  absent.  Then  the 
Manifestation  sent  after  the  believer  again,  and  he  said  to  him,  "Did  you  fol- 
low my  instructions,  did  you  kill  the  man?"  He  said,  "No;  I  could  not  find  him, 
but  I  am  ready  to  kill  him."  The  Manifestation  said,  "Did  I  tell  you  to  kill 
him  with  a  knife?"  The  believer  answered  "No."  Then  the  Manifestatibn  said, 
"I  meant  that  you  should  kill  him  with  love."  This  was  a  story  told  by  Abdel 
Kerim  Effendi  last  night  to  emphasize  the  point  that  we  should  love  our 
enemies. 

He  said  wisely  that  the  greatest  wisdom  among  ourselves  was  to  consult 
freely  with  each  other,  and  not  to  treasure  things  in  secret,  but  to  talk  it  out 
and  have  it  out  and  be  good  about  it.  That  when  the  House  of  Judges  meets 
they  should  have  a  copy  of  the  Kitab  El-Akdas"  with  them,  and  as  it  were,  an 
oath  and  covenant  of  God,  and  that  the  blessing  of  God  and  His  Spirit  shall  be 
invoked  upon  their  actions. 

(Report  signed  by)  W.  HOOPER  HARRIS, 

LAVINIA  C.  SHORT. 

A  MESSAGE  FROM  ACCA. 

Keep  its  contents  ever  before  you,  as  a  guide  to  the  path  of  righteousness. 
This  is  not  intended  as  a  tract,  and  should  be  known  only  to  those  who  have 
received  and  respect  the  message.   Consider  yourself  the  guardian  of  it. 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  MESSAGE. 

My  presence  before  you  tonight  is  in  the  meek  and  humble  capacity  of  the 
messenger  and  servant  of  the  Master — Abdul-Beha,  and  as  His  messenger  I  am 
sent  to  you  to  deliver  His  words  as  pronounced  from  His  very  lips,  and  as  written 
by  His  hand.  The  present  conditions  of  the  believers  in  America  made  Him 
very  sad  and  He  said  that  it  caused  Him  more  sorrow  than  all  the  persecutions 
and  oppressions  combined.  But  before  I  begin  to  read  His  words,  it  is  necessary 
to  define  as  to  whom  the  message  is  sent  and  by  whom  it  is  sent,  then  we  will 
better  realize  the  importance  of  the  words,  to  comprehend  the  truth  as  it  is,  and 
accordingly  act  and  do  in  the  future  as  will  indicate  your  obedience. 

This  message  is  sent  by  the  Master,  Abbas  Effendi,  The  Lord  of  the  King- 
dom, the  Agent  of  God.  It  is  sent  by  the  one  into  whose  hands  the  Kingdom 
has  been  delivered  and  the  reins  of  government  have  been  placed,  and  for  this 
reason,  he  who  disobeys  His  commands  disobeys  the  commands  of  God.  In  His 
hands  the  management  of  the  Kingdom  has  been  entrusted,  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  in  the  Book  of  the  Covenant,  the  last  will  and  testament  of  the 
Manifestation.  These  words  are  sent  to  you  by  the  Greatest  Branch,  Abbas 
Effendi,  the  one  whom  God  has  chosen  and  desired,  the  one  who  is  branched  from 
the  Ancient  of  Days,  by  the  Branch  who  is  building  the  Holy  House  as  referred 
to  in  the  prophecies,  and  who  has  already  begun  the  structure.  It  is  sent  by 
Abdul-Beha,  the  servant  of  God,  who  has  clad  Himself  with  the  mantle  of 
servitude  and  devotion  for  the  Beloved  of  God,  and  who  is  the  Eldest  Son,  who 
promised  to  come  in  the  Kingdom  with  His  Father.  By  the  One  who  was  to 
renew  the  Cup  with  His  disciples  in  the  Kingdom  with  His  Father.  By  the 
One  who  taught  the  world  to  pray — "Thy  Kingdom  come  on  Earth  as  it  is  in 
Heaven."  By  the  One  who  was  and  now  is  the  living  Example  of  the  spiritual 
and  the  righteous.  By  the  One  whose  blessed  Tablets  have  been  spread  every- 
where, numbering  in  the  thousands,  and  no  one  who  has  been  honored  with  one 
of  these  finds  it  difficult  to  distinguish  the  texts  of  these  Holy  Utterances  from 
those  of  other  human  beings,  for  they  are  incomparable.  By  the  One  whose 
Supreme  and  Exalted  position  is  acknowledged  by  every  one,  and  even  by  His 
most  bitter  enemies.  By  the  One  to  whom  the  Manifestation  referred  to  In  the 
Tablet  to  the  Czar  of  Russia,  saying:    "The  Father  has  come,  and  also  the  Son 


RELIGIONS  OF  PEESIA. 


471 


in  the  Holy  Valley,  who  cries  out..  'Labeick,  0  God,  Labeick.'  "  Meaning,  I  am 
ready,  0  God,  I  am  ready.  By  the  One  whose  Love  is  incomparable,  whose  char- 
acter is  unquestionable.  By  the  One  who  sends  to  you  His  great  Love,  saluta- 
tions and  blessings. 

The  Message  is  sent  to  the  American  Believers,  to  the  Beloved  of  God,  to 
the  honest,  sincere  and  faithful  servants  of  God.  To  you  who  are  pioneers,  and 
whose  actions  and  life  will  linger  in  the  memories  of  those  who  will  come  after 
you.  To  those  upon  whose  character,  uprightness  and  energy  the  success  of  the 
Cause  depends.  To  those  who  are  requested  to  lay  a  solid  and  valid  foundation 
for  the  Kingdom  of  God  on  Earth;  a  foundation  which  will  not  be  affected  by 
storm  or  wind.  To  those  who  will  be  called  upon  to  oppose,  with  the  sword  of 
wisdom  and  truth,  the  armies  of  error  with  whom  you  are  surrounded,  and  not 
to  oppose  each  other.  To  you  whose  duty  it  is  to  ignore  everything  for  the 
sake  of  union  and  agreement.  To  you  who  are  now  laboring  under  trying  cir- 
cumstances— tested  as  to  your  firmness  and  faith — and  who  must  pass  through 
the  fire  of  purification.  To  you  who  are  not  to  allow  any  seditious  rumors  to 
prevent  you  from  coming  into  the  Kingdom.  To  the  Beloved  Children  whose 
hearts  have  been  kindled  with  the  love  of  God.  To  those  who  are  commanded 
to  live  as  one  soul  dwelling  in  different  bodies,  to  live  as  brethren  of  one  family, 
and  who  are  expected  to  make  this  vivifying  truth  the  basis  of  their  practical 
life.  To  those  who  are  commanded  to  spare  no  means  within  their  power  to 
promote  the  cause  of  God  and  exalt  His  word.  To  those  on  whom  rests  the 
responsibility  of  creating  and  maintaining  peace  and  harmony.  To  those  whom 
God  has  chosen  to  become  the  vivifiers  of  the  world;  and  this  was  written  in  a 
Tablet  and  decreed  by  the  Supreme  Pen. 

Therefore,  do  not  let  the  waves  of  oblivion  roll  over  this  message,  which 
is  most  important,  and  is  for  our  own  edification  and  for  our  own  good. 

ANTON  HADDAD. 

Dear  Believers — 

It  was  a  great  thing  for  me  to  have  that  blessed  opportunity  to  go  to 
Syria  and  see  the  blessed  face  of  our  Lord. 

Of  course  my  visit  to  Syria  was  on  private  business,  but  at  the  same  time 
I  was  graciously  granted  the  permission  to  go  and  pay  a  visit  to  the  headquar- 
ters, which  visit,  I  hope,  will  tend  to  bring  everything  into  perfect  peace  and 
tranquility,  especially  under  such  circumstances  which  are  known  to  you,  and 
it  is  hoped  also,  that  now  is  the  time  to  unite  with  each  other,  and  live  in  per- 
fect agreement  in  order  to  boldly  defend  our  position,  and  stand  firmly  before 
anything  that  may  come  against  us. 

You  know  that  some  time  ago,  the  American  believers  were  not  allowed 
to  go  to  Acca,  owing  to  the  disturbances  raised  up  by  the  contradictors  who  vio- 
lated the  commandments  of  the  Manifestation,  [the  brothers  of  our  Lord,  and 
their  followers]. 

On  my  arrival  there,  I  found  that  this  prevention  applied  also  to  all  the 
believers  wherever  they  are,  in  order  to  refute  the  statement  of  these  contra- 
dictors and  to  show  the  Turkish  Government  plainly  and  clearly  that  the  in- 
tentions of  our  Lord  and  His  followers  are  only  religious  and  have  not  the  least 
connection  with  politics,  as  stated  by  the  enemies,  but  on  the  contrary,  are  for 
peace  and  tranquility.  Some  of  the  believers  who  came  from  Persia,  after  a 
long  journey  of  about  sixty  days  by  land  and  sea,  suffering  a  great  deal  of  trouble 
and  hardship,  were  not  allowed  to  remain  there  more  than  two  days  and  some 
of  them  were  telegraphed,  while  on  their  way,  to  go  back  home,  fearing  the 
Government  might  do  them  harm  through  the  intrigues  of  those  bitter  enemies. 

These  circumstances  made  me  share  with  them  the  difficulty  in  going  to 
Acca,  and  spending  there  a  certain  time.  But  on  my  arrival  at  Beyreut,  through 
the  grace  of  Our  Lord,  I  found  a  telegram,  sent  to  one  of  the  believers  known 
as  Moh'Eff.  Martaba  Bagdadi,  telling  him,  "Let  Haddad  come  without  waiting 
for  permission."  This  made  me  thank  God  for  His  mercy  to  this  unworthy 
servant,  and  I  proceeded  to  Acca  at  once,  in  compliance  with  the  command. 

I  need  not  give  you  now  any  description  of  the  headquarters  of  Our  Lord, 
His  dignity  and  wisdom,  and  how  He  receives  guests,  etc      You  have  been 


472 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


acquainted  with  all  this  for  some  time,  hut  I  wish  only  to  relate  to  you  the  very 
words  pronounced  from  the  blessed  mouth  of  Our  Lord  regarding  the  present 
condition  of  ihe  believers  in  America.  He  said:  "The  field  in  America  is  now 
likened  unto  a  field  of  land  in  which  are  planted  small  trees  having  not  the 
powers  within  themselves  to  stand  any  assault  or  attacks  from  outside,  or  to 
repel  the  powers  of  storm  and  wind.  Therefore,  it  is  very  necessary  at  first 
to  treat  such  trees  very  mildly  and  take  much  care  of  them  until  they  become 
very  strong,  solid  and  firm. 

Consequently  the  guides  and  teachers  who  are  in  charge  of  this  field  must 
first  deny  themselves  and  practice  chastity,  purity  and  love  all  sincerely,  cut 
their  hearts  from  the  world  and  not  care  for  the  comforts  of  their  bodies  or  for 
any  other  worldly  thing.  And  they  must  also  abolish  from  their  minds  the 
word  "Ego"  or  "I,"  and  be  servants  unto  all,  faithful  and  honest  shepherds, 
watching  very  strictly  day  and  night,  putting  all  their  efforts  to  the  care  of  their 
sheep  and  secure  them  inside  the  fold.  If  any  of  the  sheep  go  astray,  they  must 
do  their  best  and  not  rest  until  they  find  it.  They  have  to  serve  the  worshipers 
of  God,  for  He  (praise  to  Him)  is  not  in  need  of  our  service,  our  submissiveness 
or  prayers,  our  kindness  or  assistance,  etc.,  but  those  who  are  in  need  of  such 
things  are  the  worshipers  of  God,  and  by  this  they  will  please  God  the  Almighty. 
Jesus  said,  And  whosoever  shall  give  to  drink  unto  one  of  these  little  ones  a 
cup  of  cold  water,  only  in  the  name  of  a  disciple,  it  is  as  though  he  had  given 
it  to  me,  Verily,  I  say  unto  you,  he  shall  in  no  wise  lose  his  reward. 

"Every  one  of  us,  and  especially  the  guides  or  the  deliverers  of  the  truth 
must  know  that  what  He  does  or  acts,  He  does  only  to  Himself  and  none  will 
profit  but  Himself,  and  in  giving  the  truth  none  will  enjoy  but  himself." 

"The  singer  who  has  a  sweet,  soft  and  gentle  voice,  will,  when  he  sings, 
please  himself  far  better  than  he  pleases  his  audience,  and  therefore  his  pleasure 
and  delight  is  confined  to  himself.  It  is  so  in  the  case  of  the  artist,  the  photog- 
rapher and  the  inventor.  Each  one  of  them  has  a  special  delight  in  himself — 
in  the  thing  he  does — more  than  others  have  in  their  works.  The  same  is  true 
with  the  deliverer  of  the  Truth.  There  is  nothing  in  these  days  more  important 
than  the  delivery  of  the  Truth.  It  is  the  best  thing  and  the  greatest,  because 
the  future  happiness  of  man  and  his  comfort,  the  highness  of  his  position  and 
exaltation,  depends  on  his  delivering  the  Truth  to  the  worshipers  of  God." 

"The  guide  will  not  be  confirmed  by  God  unless  he  is  a  sincere  and  faith- 
ful servant  to  God.  It  might  be  that  sometimes  it  happens  that  the  guide  will  be 
successful,  but  it  is  only  for  a  short  time,  but  at  last  he  will  fall  down  if  he  is 
not  thoroughly  sincere,  even  if  he  is  the  greatest  philosopher  and  the  most 
learned  man.  It  happens  sometimes  that  the  simple  surpass  and  excel  the  intel- 
ligent and  bright." 

He  said  also:  "Besides  my  real  knowledge,  I  have  realized  by  experience 
that  the  sincere  servants  of  God  have  in  many  cases  excelled  the  learned,  and 
although  ignorant  and  simple,  they  were  confirmed  by  God  owing  to  their  sin- 
cerity, and  to  such  an  extent  that  it  made  the  others  astonished  and  perplexed. 
There  was  a  certain  riddler  once  in  Persia  of  low  breed,  simple  and  ignorant 
of  anything,  but  owing  to  his  pure  sincerity  of  God  he  was  confirmed  by  God 
and  became  one  of  the  greatest;  so  that  he  was  envied  by  even  the  most  learned 
men  in  Persia,  through  the  wonderful  knowledge  given  to  him  by  God.  Take 
as  an  example:  the  disciples  of  Christ  were  fishermen  of  the  lowest  and  mean- 
est, simple,  ignorant  and  despised  by  every  one  of  their  time,  but  owing  to  their 
sincerity  they  became  the  greatest  and  are  even  now  worshiped  by  Kings  and 
Emperors;  their  names  are  highly  honored  and  respected  by  the  great  men  of 
this  age.   As  it  was  in  the  past,  so  it  will  be  in  the  future." 

We  are  requested  by  Our  Lord  "to  live  in  peace,  love,  union  and  agree- 
ment, and  overlook  the  faults  and  defects  of  others  and  to  see  only  their  good 
actions  and  not  their  bad  ones.  These  are  things  that  will  lead  to  perfect  suc- 
cess and  thorough  happiness." 

To  illustrate  this  more  fully,  Our  Lord,  Abdel  Beha,  told  the  following 
story:  "Once  on  a  certain  time  when  Christ  and  his  disciples  were  traveling 
from  one  place  to  another,  they  came  near  a  dead  dog.  One  of  the  disciples  said: 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


473 


•How  ugly  this  dog  is;'  another  said,  'How  offensive  and  putrid  he  is,'  another, 
'How  bad;'  and  another,  'Fie  on  him,  how  abominable.'  On  this  Christ  was 
anxious  to  show  to  them  something  that  was  good  in  that  dog,  thus  to  teach  them 
that  first  they  should  look  for  the  good  things  without  caring  in  the  least  for 
the  bad,  and  in  some  manner,  he  made  the  dog's  teeth  appear,  saying  to  his 
disciples,  'How  white  and  beautiful  are  his  teeth.'  This  made  the  disciples 
ashamed,  realizing  at  the  same  time  that  they  were  mistaken  and  that  what 
they  said  was  wrong.  This  lesson  teaches  us  how  to  behave  toward  each  other 
and  how  to  view  and  treat  each  other,  i.  e.,  to  look  for  the  good  things  in  each 
other,  caring  not  for  the  bad." 

He  said  also:  "Tell  the  believers,  if  they  hear  some  day  that  something 
has  happened  to  their  Chief,  Abdel  Beha,  whether  killed  or  crucified,  they  must 
not  fear  or  feel  broken-hearted,  sad,  or  afflicted,  but  on  the  contrary  shoif  d 
strengthen  and  comfort  each  other,  stand  firm  and  continue  working  in  the  field 
of  God,  teaching  and  delivering  the  truth  to  all  the  people."  "Tell  El-Ahbab  in 
America,  that  it  is  very  necessary  in  these  days  that  they  should  not  notice  the 
bad  things  of  others,  nor  mind  the  small,  trifling  worldly  things,  but  seek  the 
spiritual,  which  tends  to  their  strengthening  and  confirmation,  for  these  days 
are  the  days  of  persecutions,  dangers  and  perils,  and  accordingly  they  ought  to 
unite  with  each  other,  for  union  is  power,  and  let  them  take  as  their  example 
in  everything,  Abdel- Beha.,  The  Master." 

You  know  very  well  that  our  Lord  is  suffering  from  several  things  besides 
what  he  suffered  in  the  past,  but  yet  he  is  very  patient,  and  his  special  desire 
and  pleasure  is  to  die  in  the  cause  of  God,  although  greatly  persecuted  by  his 
enemies,  he  is  powerful  enough  to  have  them  dispersed,  yet  he  is  very  loving, 
compassionate  and  merciful  for  the  sake  of  the  cause  of  God,  and  requests  every- 
one of  the  believers  to  follow  his  steps,  and  by  this,  they  will  have  the  desire 
of  his  heart  fulfilled. 

The  Master  also  said:  "Perhaps  you  have  heard  some  things  about  Ibn- 
Abhar.  He  is  a  Persian  teacher  and  one  of  the  greatest  in  knowledge  and 
spirituality  and  holds  a  very  high  position  among  the  believers;  still,  when 
asked  by  any  one  about  any  other  certain  believer  he  generally  says,  'I  am  not 
worthy  to  unloose  the  latchet  of  his  shoes.'  This  teaches  us  humility  and  that 
we  ought  to  speak  very  well  of  others,  even  to  prefer  them  to  ourselves,  that 
we  should  not  boast  by  saying,  'I  am  the  man  and  nobody  else.'  'The  believers 
should  be  thankful  to  the  guide  or  teacher,  and  faithful  to  him  for  what  he  has 
done  for  them,  in  giving  them  that  treasured  thing  which  could  not  be  esti- 
mated or  re-compensated." 

"What  use  will  it  be  to  you  if  you  are  an  extinguished  lamp  and  the 
other  lamps  are  bright  and  brilliant,  or  what  harm  will  it  do  if  you  are  bright 
and  the  others  dark?  What  profit  will  you  get  if  you  are  poor  and  the  others 
rich,  or  what  harm  will  it  do  you  if  you  are  rich  and  the  others  are  in  need  of 
you?  And  so  on  in  all  cases.  Under  these  circumstances,  every  one  should  at 
first  reform  himself  and  better  his  condition;  when  this  is  settled  with  him 
he  will  do  a  great  deal  of  good  to  others  and  be  competent  to  fulfill  many  very 
important  duties,  then  his  words  will  have  a  great  effect  on  the  hearts  of  others. 
I  love  every  one  of  you  and  therefore  I  wish  you  to  love  each  other  sincerely." 

He  also  said:  "Tell  the  believers  that  I  want  the  strong  ones  among  them 
to  strengthen  the  weak,  just  as  Mary  Magdalen  did  after  the  death  of  Christ. 
On  that  famous  event  the  disciples  of  Christ  became  very  weak  and  disappointed, 
and  some  of  them  were  full  of  doubts,  and  were  likely  to  disbelieve  in  him.  At 
last  they  went  to  Mary  and  said  to  her,.  'Do  you  not  know  He  is  dead?'  She 
replied,  'Well  it  does  not  matter;  was'  the  soul  killed  or  the  body?'  They 
answered,  'The  body.'  Then  she  said  to  them,  'Do  not  fear,  He  is  still  alive  and 
will  be  with  us  always,  and  is  ready  at  all  times  to  help  us.  Go,  be  firm  and 
strong,  and  do  not  let  small  things  trouble  you  or  fill  you  with  doubts.  Go  and 
preach  the  word  of  God  to  every  one  with  sincere  faith  and  you  will  be  con- 
firmed by  the  Holy  Spirit.'  So  they  were  encouraged,  by  her  and  went  on 
preaching  and  teaching,  thus  she  was  the  cause  of  strengthening  them  and  pro- 
moting the  truth  among  all  the  people." 


471 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


Abdel  Beha  wants  you  to  follow  the  steps  of  that  great  woman,  especially 
if  you  come  under  similar  circumstances.  He  wants  you  to  take  no  thought  for 
any  other  thing  but  the  cause  of  God,  and  to  be  as  St.  Paul  when  he  said,  'I 
once  had  knowledge,  wisdom  and  philosophy,  but  after  I  knew  Christ  I  forgot 
everything,  and  now  I  do  not  know  but  Christ.'  "  If  believers  or  guides  fall  into 
temptations,  or  commit  any  wrong,  the  others  ought  reform  such  infirmities 
with  the  spirit  of  sincere  love  for  his  edification,  that  you  may  with  one  mind  and 
one  mouth  glorify  God.  Whosoever  of  you,  if  he  had  a  certain  beautiful  tree  in 
his  garden  for  a  long  time,  during  which  long  time  it  was  giving  good  fruits, 
would  cut  it  down  if,  for  one  year  he  seeks  fruit  on  this  tree  and  find  none;  will 
he  not  be  sad  and  have  pity?  Will  he  not  wait  another  year  and  take  much  care 
of  it,  until  he  removes  all  cause  which  stood  against  that  tree  and  injured  it: 
this  must  be  the  case  with  the  Believers,  especially  with  the  teachers  and  guides. 
Whosoever  of  you,  if  he  had  all  his  clothes  saturated  with  water,  would  care  in 
the  least  if  some  small  drops  of  water  were  thrown  on  him  by  another?  Of 
course  he  would  not  care,  for  such  drops  will  not  affect  him  at  all.  Thus  we 
should  not  notice  the  small  faults  committed  against  us  by  others.  To  speak 
evil  against  believers,  the  guides  or  the  teachers,  will  hurt  but  yourselves.  Every- 
one is  liable  to  mistakes  and  to  fall  into  temptations;  therefore  we  ought  not  to 
expect  perfection  in  anybody.  Jesus  said,  "There  is  none  good  but  One,  and  He 
is  God."  "No  one  can  claim  the  Behaist  religion  unless  very  sincere  and  honest 
'and  born  of  water  and  the  Spirit,'  as  Jesus  said.  Therefore,  he  who  comes  to 
this  religion  with  perfect  and  pure  sincerity  will  prosper  and  succeed  thoroughly; 
otherwise,  success  will  be  only  for  a  short  time  and  then  will  fail." 

"Fear  not  any  trouble,  persecution  or  calamity  which  may  befall  you,  for 
it  is  said  that  when  the  flag  of  the  truth  appears  it  will  be  cursed  by  the  people  of 
the  east  and  west;  just  as  it  was  in  the  past,  so  it  will  be  now  without  the  least 
difference." 

"Seek  ye  first  the  Kingdom  of  God."  One  of  the  believers  in  Acca  spoke 
to  me  (the  master),  that  the  only  desire  he  was  begging  to  attain  was  to  get 
bread  and  water  only  without  taking  any  thought  for  good  clothes,  and  to  devote 
himself  for  the  service  of  his  Lord;  but  owing  to  his  sincerity,  God  the  Almighty, 
has  given  him,  without  knowing  how.  instead  of  bread  and  water  on  his  table, 
more  than  ten  kinds  of  good  food.  I  have  received  news  from  Persia  that  some- 
one there  has  imitated  the  picture  of  the  Manifestation  and  sold  it  to  one  of  the 
believers  there  for  a  sum  of  about  $200,  thus  be  careful  not  to  be  deceived  by 
any  one,  for  the  real  picture  is  not  in  the  possession  of  any  one  but  Abdel  Beha." 

[These  are  the  words  of  Our  Lord  translated  to  you,  word  by  word.  May 
God  the  Almighty  help  us  keep  them  and  take  them  as  a  lamp  for  our  feet. 
Amen.]  (Signed)  ANTON  HADDAD. 

January  9,  1900. 

THE  WORDS  OF  OUR  LORD  RELATING  TO  DISAGREEMENT  AMONG  THE 
BELIEVERS. 

"Disagreement  among  the  believers  is  likened  unto  the  clouds  which  pre- 
vent the  rays  of  the  sun  from  reaching  into  the  space  covered  by  the  clouds. 
Although  it  may  be  for  a  short  time  only,  the  power  of  the  rays  will  undoubt- 
edly demolish  the  clouds,  yet  the  clouds  will  stop  the  rays  for  a  while  and  con- 
sequently deprive  the  creatures  of  God  from  that  privilege  of  enjoying  the  beauty 
of  the  sun  during  the  existence  of  the  clouds." 

"Accordingly,  disagreement  among  the  believers  has  the  same  effect  and 
result.  It  prevents  the  confirmation  of  God  for  a  while.  No  confirmation  to 
any  one  as  long  as  disagreement  is  in  existence." 

"But  know  that  the  cause  of  God  can  never  be  demolished  or  destroyed 
and  no  one  whatever  is  able  to  prevent  or  even  stop  its  appearance  and  spread- 
ing. It  may  become  latent  or  delayed  for  one,  two  or  three  years,  but  at  last 
it  will  appear  in  spite  of  all  the  hindrances,  difficulties,  and  impediments  that 
come  in  its  way." 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


475 


"Every  one  of  you  is  aware  that  the  tree  has  a  special  time  for  its  leaves 
to  come  out,  another  for  its  flowers,  and  another  for  its  fruits;  hut  it  may  hap- 
pen some  year  that  icy  weather  and  intenseness  of  cold  may  prevail  for  a  while 
and  thus  stop  the  tree  from  coming  out  in  time.  Do  you  think  that  if  all  the 
world  should  unite,  can  they  stop  the  coming  of  Spring?  O  no,  it  must  come 
by  force,  although  the  circumstances  are  not  suitable,  still  the  trees  bring  out 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruits.  This  is  the  case  of  the  cause  of  God  and  is  after  the 
same  method.  If  delayed  for  a  while  nothing  can  prevent  its  appearance  and 
promotion,  for  God  is  able  to  raise  up  some  other  people  who  will  give  their 
fruits  in  time:  but  the  great  calamity  will  be  on  the  souls  who  were  in  exist- 
ence during  that  time  of  disagreement,  because  these  souls  will  be  deprived  of 
all  the  benefits  that  were  offered  to  them.  Thus  they  will  be  losing  and  the  souls 
coming  after  them  gaining.  Disagreement  is  likened  unto  the  destroyer  of  homes. 
It  is  an  old  saying  that  1,000  builders  are  not  equal  to  one  destroyer — how  much 
more  if  there  are  1,000  destroyers  after  one  builder?  Do  your  best  and  use 
every  effort  to  unite.  Have  accord  and  harmony  among  you,  so  that  you  may 
be  able  to  defend  yourselves  and  oppose  all  the  collusions  and  attacks  that  may 
come  against  you." 

You  are  a  small  army  and  very  few  in  number  in  comparison  with  those 
around  you.  If  dissension  is  existing  among  you  and  your  opinions  are  different, 
everyone  of  you  wishing  to  fight  with  a  special  sort  of  arms,  i.  e.,  some  with 
swords,  some  with  rifles,  some  with  spears  and  some  with  guns,  what  will  be 
the  result?  Defeat!  and  you  will  never  see  victory.  But  if  you  will  unite  to- 
gether with  one  heart,  one  mind,  one  opinion,  and  one  word,  you  will  be  able 
to  fight  all  the  armies  of  the  world,  and  stand  firmly  before  them.  Truly,  you 
have  before  you  all  the  different  armies  of  the  world,  and  you  have  to  fight  them. 
You  will  overcome  them  if  you  unite  and  receive  the  confirmation  of  God. 
When  in  Persia  we  were  very  few  in  number,  but  owing  to  our  unity  and  har- 
mony, and  our  fighting  with  one  kind  of  arms,  we  stood  before  our  numerous 
enemies,  fought  and  at  last  defeated  them  and  gained  the  victory." 

"There  are  before  you  so  many  temptations,  trials,  afflictions,  calamities 
and  difficulties  because  you  have  to  be  purified  through  fire  and  sifted  through 
the  sieve  in  order  to  separate  the  wheat  from  the  tares.  Verily  I  say  unto  you 
none  will  be  saved  but  the  believers,  and  from  the  believers  only  the  sincere, 
and  even  those  are  in  great  danger,  especially  in  such  a  time." 


"Let  no  seditious  rumors  prevent  you  from  coming  into  the  Kingdom  of 
God  and  receiving  the  Spirit  of  Confirmation.  Take  for  an  example  Jesus  Christ, 
when  He  was  here  on  earth  1900  years  ago,  how  He  was  despised  by  the  people 
to  an  extent  unimaginable.  How  the  Jews  and  even  the  Romans  refused  to  have 
Him  buried  in  their  cemeteries,  and  at  last  He  was  interred  in  a  dung-hill  which 
they  call  now  Golgotha.  How  in  the  second  century  after  Christ  some  of  the  so- 
called  learned  people  sprang  up  and  wrote  many  books  in  which  they  denied 
Christ  and  His  appearance  among  the  people — that  there  was  no  person  such  as 
Christ,  and,  in  fact,  there  was  no  one  by  this  name,  that  it  was  only  the  inven- 
tion of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  so  many  other  things  besides.  But  look  at  the  re- 
sult now,  and  see!  Consider  how  powerful  is  the  cause  of  God!  Be  firm  in  the 
faith  and  let  no  doubts  come  to  your  mind,  for  this  century  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  all.  He  who  pronounces  one  word  of  truth  now,  that  word  will  con- 
tinue to  wave  and  vibrate  without  end  and  will  never  be  annihilated;  but  not 
so  the  contrary.  The  same  result  follows  those  who  commit  good  deeds  and  bad 
deeds.  Think  of  the  actions  and  deeds  done  in  the  time  of  the  prophets  and 
apostles,  and  consider — what  were  they?  They  were  nothing  but  trifling  things 
in  comparison  with  those  done  after  their  times;  but  we  know  very  well  that 
these  small  things  became  known  to  everybody  and  will  be  forever  and  ever; 
while  the  great  things  done  after  the  times  of  the  apostles  were  known  for  a 
short  time  only  and  then  were  forgotten.  What  was  done  by  some  of  the  women 
and  men  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  in  the  time  of  the  apostles?    They  did 


476 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


nothing  of  great  importance.  Some  of  them  received  the  apostles  in  their 
houses,  others  rendered  them  service,  while  others  gave  them  protection  and 
assistance.  But  after  the  time  of  the  apostles  many  built  churches,  others 
spent  all  their  money  in  a  charitable  way,  but  nothing  is  now  known  about 
them.   What  a  great  difference  there  is  between  their  works." 

"Look  at  the  time  of  Christ!  What  of  the  two  thieves  crucified  with  him? 
Each  pronounced  but  one  word,  and  these  two  words  became  known  for  many 
generations  up  to  the  present  time,  and  will  still  linger  in  the  memories  of  those 
who  will  come  after  us,  although  a  great  many  people  did  greater  things  after 
the  time  of  Christ,  they  were  not  to  be  compared  with  the  words  of  the  thieves. 
Why  is  this?  Is  it  because  what  took  place  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  apostles 
was  done  in  the  time  of  their  appearance,  the  time  of  distress  and  persecution. 
This  is  the  case  at  present.  He  who  does  a  very  small  thing  now,  that  thing 
will  be  remembered  forever  by  every  one,  but  the  things  done  after  this  time, 
however  great  they  may  be,  will  never  have  the  same  effect,  but  will  be  remem- 
bered by  some  and  last  only  for  a  short  time.  To  do  now  is  of  greater  prefer- 
ence and  importance  than  hereafter,  owing  to  the  paucity  of  the  number  of  the 
believers  and  the  circumstances  they  are  surrounded  with;  for  after  this  time 
the  believers  will  number  millions  and  millions  and  they  will  be  the  majority 
everywhere.   You  are  the  pioneers  and  have  to  work  very  hard." 

"You  have  to  be  firm  and  solid.  If  success  in  the  worldly  things  (which 
are  nothing  in  comparison  with  spiritual)  depends  on  firmness,  how  much  more 
is  the  spiritual?  He  who  stands  firm  will  succeed,  but  the  cowards  who  draw 
back  will  never  see  success.  Disagreement  is  just  like  poison — whenever  the 
poison  enters  the  body  it  will  kill  it  at  once,  notwithstanding  its  vitality  and 
strength.    So  beware  not  to  let  this  kind  of  poison  enter  your  heart." 

"The  Kingdom  of  God  is  also  likened  unto  the  temple  of  man.  We  know 
very  well  that  such  temple  is  composed  of  many  members  which  differ  greatly  in 
shape,  form,  action  and  office,  and  when  these  different  members  act  in  harmony 
with  each  other  and  have  the  real  perfect  affinity  and  attraction  among  them, 
they  form  together  that  temple  which  will  be  thoroughly  ready  to  receive  the 
Spirit- — although  so  various  and  different.  We  cannot  say  that  one  member  is 
preferred  to  another,  or  is  of  greater  importance  in  the  formation  of  the  temple. 
No,  we  cannot  say  that,  for  each  member  has  its  own  office  and  by  the  action  of 
all  in  harmony  and  unison,  a  perfect  result  is  produced.  So  is  the  case  with  the 
Kingdom  of  God,  which  Kingdom  is  composed  of  different  members,  and  if  these 
members,  although  differing  in  quality,  form,  shapes  and  characters,  act  in  har- 
mony with  each  other  and  in  perfect  agreement,  they  will  form  the  Kingdom  of 
God  and  will  be  ready  to  receive  the  confirmation  of  His  Spirit.  But  if  dis- 
agreement falls  among  them  and  each  one  wants  to  make  himself  greater  than 
the  other,  thinking  of  his  high  office  and  importance,  the  Kingdom  of  God  will 
not  be  formed  of  such  members  and  they  will  never  be  ready  or  worthy  to  re- 
ceive the  confirmation  of  His  Spirit." 

"The  Kingdom  of  God  is  also  likened  unto  a  garden  of  trees.  We  all  know 
that  a  garden  in  order  to  be  beautiful  must  contain  a  good  number  of  trees,  va- 
rious in  size  and  different  in  colors,  flowers  and  fruits.  Some  of  the  trees  are 
tall  and  some  short,  some  bear  good  and  sweet  fruits,  some  sour  and  some  bitter, 
but  all  these  trees  are  necessary  to  form  a  garden.  No  tree  can  say  to  the  other. 
'I  am  the  most  important  organ  of  the  lot.'  or  'I  am  more  profitable  than  you.' 
Not  so  whatever.  Because  all  the  trees  in  that  garden  are  watered  by  the  same 
Hand,  having  the  same  sun  and  the  same  breeze  passing  on  them.  If  any  dis- 
tinction is  to  be  made  among  them,  such  distinction  must  belong  to  the  owner 
of  the  garden  and  not  to  the  trees  themselves." 

"So  is  the  Kingdom  of  God.  He  is  the  owner  and  Lord  of  the  Kingdom, 
and  everything  relating  to  the  members  of  the  Kingdom  is  in  His  hands  and 
belongs  to  Him  only,  although  the  members  are  not  equal  in  everything,  but 
different  in  size,  disposition,  quality,  character,  conduct,  color,  and  fruit.  Yet, 
all  of  them  are  necessary  to  form  the  Kingdom,  but  they  cannot  make  any  dis- 
tinction among  themselves.  High  distinction  belongs  only  to  the  Lord  of  the 
Kingdom.  No  one  can  prefer  himself  to  others,  because  all  are  watered  by  the 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


477 


same  Hand,  having  the  same  sun,  the  same  breeze  of  air  passing  over  them; 
therefore,  they  should  be  as  one,  loving  and  respecting  each  other  and  considering 
themselves  as  brothers  and  sisters  and  even  more,  for  in  spirituality,  kinship  is 
not  to  be  considered  whatever.  Jesus  Christ  said,  "He  who  hears  my  word  is 
my  brother,  sister  and  mother." 

"Agreement,  union,  affinity  and  attraction  have  a  great  effect  on  the  uni- 
verse. Take  our  globe,  for  instance.  It  became  so  large  through  the  great  and 
perfect  union,  cohesion,  affinity  and  attraction  among  the  different  ingredients 
and  particles  of  which  it  is  composed,  but  the  small  things  which  we  see  could 
not  be  any  larger,  owing  to  the  lack  of  affinity  between  their  and  other  sub- 
stance. Thus  affinity  has  a  great  effect  in  the  enlargement  of  anything.  So 
also  among  the  believers.  It  should  be  the  most  important  factor  and  the  basis 
of  their  growth,  otherwise  tbey  will  go  asunder  if  they  ever  meet  with  collision 
or  difficulty." 

"Tell  my  beloved  that  great  persecutions  and  troubles  are  awaiting  them. 
They  have  not  seen  anything  yet.  They  will  be  attacked  by  all  the  people  around 
them,  ridiculed  and  despised  for  His  sake.  A  great  many  books  will  be  written 
against  them  and  the  papers  will  attack  them  very  severely."  He  said  also  that 
"a  woman  of  great  ability  will  write  an  article  against  the  believers  full  of  lies 
and  false  things,  but  they  ought  not  to  let  these  things  trouble  or  give  them 
the  least  doubt  or  fear.  They  will  gain  the  victory  and  receive  His  confirmation 
and  strength  if  they  only  listen  to  His  words  and  unite  together  as  one  soul  and 
spirit." 

[These  are  the  translated  words  of  Our  Lord  spoken  to  me  in  response  to 
the  information  I  gave  Him  regarding  the  difficulties  among  the  American  be- 
lievers. These  notes  were  afterward  corrected  by  His  own  hand,  and  may  God 
help  you  to  accept  and  practice  them.] 

(Signed)    ANTON  HADDAD. 
|TO  THE  AMERICANS— A  DECLARATION— HE  IS  GOD. 

O  ye,  the  beloved  of  God  and  the  children  of  God,  the  new  heaven  is  already 
come,  the  new  earth  is  already  established,  and  the  new  Holy  Jerusalem  is 
already  descended  from  heaven,  from  the  presence  of  the  Almighty,  in  the  form 
of  a  glorious  virgin,  excellent  in  her  beauty,  an  unequaled  gem  among  the  other 
virgins,  secluded  in  the  tent,  ready  to  receive.  The  angels  of  the  Highest  of  the 
Kingdom  have  called  in  the  ears  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth  and  heaven 
with  aloud  and  melodious  voice,  saying:  "This  is  the  city  of  God  and  His  resi- 
dence with  the  holy  and  sanctified  souls  of  His  servants.  He  shall  live  with 
them,  for  they  are  His  people  and  He  is  their  God."  He  has  wiped  their  tears, 
lighted  their  candles,  given  peace  to  their  hearts  and  widened  their  breasts; 
therefore,  the  roots  of  death  were  rooted  out,  sorrow,  wailing  and  crying  have 
ceased,  and  the  lesser  King  of  Majesty  (Abbas)  occupies  the  Throne  of  the 
Kingdom,  and  renews  the  performance  of  untold  actions.  This  is  the  absolute 
truth,  and  of  a  higher  certainty  than  what  was  said  in  the  Revelation  by  St. 
John:  "He  is  the  Alpha  and  the  Omega."  This  is  He  who  quenches  the  thirst 
from  the  spring  of  life.  This  is  He  who  heals  the  sick  with  the  antidote  of 
safety  and  confirms  with  a  flood  of  grace  from  this  Kingdom.  He  is  of  the  great- 
est heirs  to  the  apostles  and  saints,  the  Lord  is  His  God  and  He  is  His  dearest 
Son.  (Abdul-Beha.) 

Good  tidings  to  you,  O  beloved  of  God,  His  people,  His  children  and  His 
party!  Raise  your  voices  in  praising  and  glorifying  the  glorious  Lord,  for  the 
lights  have  shone,  the  traces  appeared,  the  seas  moved,  and  gave  out  every 
precius  gem. 

SELECTED   PRECEPTS   OF  EL-HAK. 

(The  Manifestation.) 

This  manuscript  contains  fifteen  clauses  called  "Good  Tidings,"  each  of 
which  indicates  some  reform,  or  law  conducive  to  the  general  well  being  of  man- 


478 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


kind.  As  indicating  the  ideals  held  up  by  El-Hak  for  the  guidance  of  His  fol- 
lowers, it  is  interesting  and  important.   The  inscription  at  the  top  is  as  follows: 

"The  Divine  ordinances  and  commands,  formerly  revealed  in  sundry  epis- 
tles, have,  agreeably  to  the  Supreme  and  Most  Holy  Command,  been  collected, 
that  all  may  become  cognizant  of  the  grace,  mercy  and  favor  of  God  in  this  Most 
Mighty  Manifestation  and  this  Great  Announcement,  and  may  engage  in  praise 
and  thanksgiving  to  the  Desired  Object  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  world. 
Verily,  He  helpeth  His  servants  unto  that  which  He  willeth,  for  He  is  the  Wise 
Ordainer."  > 

In  substance  the  reforms  enacted  in  the  fifteen  clauses  are  as  follows: 

1.  Abolition  of  religious  warfar  e. 

2.  Permission  of  all  sects  and  peoples  to  unite  in  friendly  intercourse. 

3.  Permission  to  study  foreign  languages,  coupled  with  a  recommendation 
that  one  language  and  writing  (either  of  those  already  existing  or  especially  de- 
vised for  the  purpose)  should  be  selected  by  general  consent  as  a  medium  of 
international  communication. 

4.  All  El-Hak's  followers  are  bound  loyally  to  serve  and  support  any  king 
who  extends  his  protection  to  their  faith. 

5.  The  followers  of  El-Hak,  in  whatever  land  they  dwell,  must  cheerfully 
and  ungrudgingly  submit  to  the  laws  and  conform  to  the  customs  of  that  country. 

6.  Promise  of  the  "Most  Great  Peace." 

7.  All  are  permitted,  subject  to  the  dictates  of  decency  and  good  taste,  to 
follow  their  own  inclination  as  to  dress  and  the  wearing  of  the  hair. 

8.  The  good  works  and  devotions  of  Christian  priests  (and  ministers)  are 
recognized  and  will  be  accepted,  but  they  must  henceforth  abandon  their  seclu- 
sion and  "engage  in  that  which  shall  advantage  them  and  whereby  mankind 
shall  be  benefited."    (See  text  12.)    They  are  also  permitted  to  marry. 

9.  Confession  of  sins  to  one's  fellowmen  and  seeking  absolution  from  them 
is  not  permitted.  To  God  only  should  confession  be  made,  and  from  Him  only 
should  pardon  be  sought.  A  form  of  prayer  suitable  for  such  confession  is  given. 

10.  The  Bab's  command  to  destroy  certain  classes  of  books  (e.  g.,  books 
of  logic,  philosophy  and  other  sciences,  conducing,  in  his  opinion,  only  to  self- 
conceit  and  disputation)  and  to  "renew"  all  books  after  a  certain  period  is  abro- 
gated. 

11.  The  study  of  sciences  and  arts  is  commended  and  encouraged,  but  they 
should  be  such  as  conduce  to  the  welfare  of  mankind. 

12.  All  men  must  learn  and  practice  some  craft,  trade  or  profession.  The 
diligent  and  conscientious  practice  of  some  craft,  trade  or  profession  is  in  itself 
an  act  of  worship.   Mendicity  and  idleness  are  hateful  to  God. 

13.  The  settlement  of  differences,  the  apportionment  of  alms  and  the  order- 
ing of  the  affairs  of  the  commonwealth  generally  are  intrusted  to  the  "House  of 
Justice." 

14.  Visitation  of  the  tombs  of  martyrs  and  pilgrimages  to  the  shrines  of 
saints  are  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  obligatory.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  pious 
work  for  rich  men  to  leave  money  to  the  "House  of  Justice"  to  enable  their 
poorer  brethren  to  perform  these  pilgrimages. 

15.  Though  a  republic  conduces  most  to  the  general  welfare,  it  is  not  de- 
sired that  kings,  who  are  the  "Signs  of  God's  Power,"  should  cease  to  exist.  If 
statesmen  can  combine  these  two  things  in  this  cycle  their  reward  with  God 
shall  be  great. 

AMERICAN  PILGRIMS. 

Cairo,  Egypt,  April  4th,  1899. 

As  I  have  written  an  account  of  my  first  visit  to  the  Holy  Household, 
and  sent  to  Mr.  James,  which  undoubtedly  you  have  read  ere  this,  I  thought  per- 
haps you  might  be  interested  in  hearing  the  description  of  my  last  visit  there, 
though  to  me  it  was  heart-breaking  in  the  extreme. 

On  the  afternoon  of  March  20  I  said  "Good-bye"  to  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Kheiralla, 
Nabiha  and  Labiba  in  Haifa  (for  they  were  to  leave  the  next  day  for  Port  Said) 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


479 


and  set  out  by  myself  for  Acca,  the  gardener,  Abdul  Hasim,  who  happened  to 
be  in  Haifa,  being  my  sole  companion  in  the  carriage,  and  he  made  the  drive 
over  very  pleasant  by  telling  me,  in  simple  Persian,  some  of  the  tablets  and 
words  of  the  Manifestation. 

When  we  reached  the  city,  our  Lord  and  Seyyed  Yahya  were  standing  near 
the  gate,  but  we  passed  them  without  speaking  or  noticing  them  apparently,  for 
there  were  many  of  the  Turkish  soldiers  standing  about— and  went  directly  to 
the  house,  where  I  was  most  cordially  welcomed  by  the  "Greatest  Leaf"  and  the 
daughters  of  our  master. 

It  was  nearly  dark, — so  we  went  to  the  apartment  of  the  Holy  Leaf,  where 
we  had  tea  and  then  sat  talking,  waiting  for  the  "King"  to  come.  At  last  a 
servant  announced  that  He  was  coming,  so  the  two  youngest  daughters  and  my- 
self ran  out  in  the  court  to  meet  Him.  I  reached  Him  first  and  knelt  down 
before  Him,  kissing  the  hem  of  His  robe.  He  thereupon  took  my  hand,  and, 
saying  in  Persian,  "Daughter,  welcome,"  helped  me  to  my  feet,  and,  keeping 
my  hand,  walked  with  me  into  the  house,  where  I  sat  down  beside  Him  while  He 
drank  some  tea, — and  asked  me  if  I  was  "well,  happy  and  content."   To  which 

I  could  only  reply  that  to  be  in  His  presence  was  health,  happiness  and  content- 
ment itself.  Then  He  said:  "I  am  sending  you  back  to  America  that  you  may 
work  to  gain  a  place  beside  me  in  the  Eternal  Kingdom." 

Soon  after  this  dinner  was  announced  and  our  Master  seated  me  beside 
Him, — then  His  wife,  the  "Greatest  Holy  Leaf,"  and  His  daughters  made  up  the 
rest  of  the  party,  while  His  sons-in-law  waited  upon  us.  This  meal  was  served 
according  to  the  Arabic  fashion, — on  a  very  low  table,  around  which  we  sat  on 
the  floor  upon  cushions.  Once  during  the  meal  our  Lord  took  a  piece  of  bread, 
and  putting  on  it  some  honey,  handed  it  to  me  to  eat,  saying  as  He  did  so: 
"Let  all  of  your  words  be  as  sweetly  flavored  with  kindness  to  all  people — as 
this  bread  is  flavored  by  honey."  When  I  swallowed  this  mouthful  from  His 
blessed  hand  I  truly  felt  a  great  spiritual  blessing, — my  heart  was  fairly  melted 
by  the  power  of  love,  and  the  tears  fell  like  rain  over  my  cheeks.  The  "Greatest 
Leaf"  took  her  hankerchief,  and,  wiping  my  eyes,  said:  "You  are  blessed — be 
happy."  Indeed  I  was  happy — my  tears  were  tears  of  joy!  After  the  meal  was 
over  I  poured  the  water  on  His  hands  while  He  washed  His  face  (a  custom  in 
the  Orient  after  eating) ;  then  He  handed  me  the  towel  and  I  did  likewise, — He 
saying,  after  I  had  finished:  "Now  you  must  go  and  wash  from  the  faces  of  the 
people  the  clouds  of  ignorance,  and  from  their  hearts  the  love  of  this  world — 
that  they  may  receive  the  Spirit  of  Truth  and  shine  as  lamps  in  the  Kingdom!" 

He  then  went  out  to  see  some  of  the  officials  and  I  spent  the  evening  with 
the  "Greatest  Leaf"  and  the  daughters.  We  were  chanting  tablets  and  I  was 
trying  hard  to  tell  them  in  Persian  something  about  the  Believers  in  America, 
and  succeeded  quiet  well  for  the  little  time  I  have  studied  the  language,  though 
sometimes  we  had  a  good  laugh  over  my  queer  accent,  especially  on  words  con- 
taining the  gutteral  sounds.  They  never  tire  of  hearing  about  the  work  in 
America,  and  the  four  daughters  are  studying  English  very  diligently  so  they 
can  speak  to  the  pilgrims  as  they  come  to  Acca  in  the  future.   We  retired  about 

II  o'clock,  and  I  was  very  happy  indeed. 

Next  morning  very  early  the  Babis  in  Acca  began  to  assemble  at  the  house 
of  our  Lord,  the  ladies  going  to  the  room  of  the  "Holy  Leaf"  and  the  men  re- 
maining down  stairs.  The  occasion  of  this  gathering  was  on  account  of  March 
21st  being  New  Year's  Day,  according  to  the  Babis,  so  it  was  a  feast  day.  Our 
Lord  came  into  the  room  and  gave  to  everybody  some  sweets  from  His  hand, 
after  which  Rooha  Khanum,  one  of  his  daughters,  chanted  a  beautiful  tablet. 
Then  He  arose,  and,  saying  a  few  words  of  welcome,  went  to  the  room  occupied 
by  the  men.  There  He  gathered  all  of  the  children  together  and  gave  each  of 
them  a  few  coins,  about  ten  or  fifteen  cents,  which  made  them  all  delighted  and 
very  happy,  of  course,  because  He  gave  it  to  them.  After  drinking  tea  and  visit- 
ing a  little  while,  they  all  went  away.  Then  we  had  lunch,  and  directly  after 
prepared  to  make  my  last  visit  to  the  tomb  of  the  Manifestation.  I  went  in  a 
closed  carriage  with  Rooha  Khanum,  and  upon  our  arrival  we  went  into  a  small 
room  where  we  remained  hidden  until  all  of  the  others  had  made  the  visit  with 


480 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


our  Master  and  departed.  Then  He  came  and  told  us  to  come  out,  which  we 
did, — the  three  of  us  then  being  in  that  sacred  place  alone!  Immediately  He  led 
the  way  to  the  room  where  lies  the  precious  casket  which  contained  the  most 
brilliant  jewel  that  ever  shone  upon  this  earth, — Beha  u'  llah,— and  there  He 
lifted  up  his  voice  in  supplication  for  me, — (worm  of  the  dust  that  I  am!  Oh 
God,  my  heart  burns  like  fire  and  my  tears  flow  like  rain  when  I  think  of  it!) — 
asking  that  I  should  receive  the  confirmation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  go  forth 
to  work  in  the  cause  of  God,  guiding  souls  to  the  Kingdom!  What  this  day  was 
to  me  no  one  can  ever  know!  My  work,  my  words,  my  deeds  must  tell  in  the 
future  whether  or  not  He  prayed  for  me  in  vain!  I  can  only  say  I  wanted  to 
fall  at  His  feet  then  and  there,  and  give  my  heart,  my  soul  and  my  life  for  the 
dear  and  sacred  mouth  that  had  spoken  in  my  behalf!  I  then  prayed  for  our 
teacher  who  was  the  means  of  giving  us  the  Truth  in  America,  for  I  felt  that  if 
I  should  live  a  thousand  years  I  could  never  ask  God  enough  to  repay  him  for 
what  he  has  done  for  me  and  for  those  I  love  in  my  own  dear  native  land.  I 
can  never  do  it;  God  only  can  pay  my  deep  debt  of  gratitude  by  answering  my 
supplications  for  his  welfare!  As  we  turned  away,  my  eyes  lingered  lovingly 
upon  the  sacred  place, — and  in  my  heart  I  could  only  feebly  thank  God  for  His 
great  mercy  and  many  blessings  which  I  can  never  deserve,  though  I  give  my 
life  for  His  sake  by  shedding  my  blood  in  His  cause, — which  I  pray  may  be  my 
happy  lot, — when  His  will  in  me  is  done! 

It  was  dark  when  we  reached  the  house  of  the  Master  in  Acca,  so  we  had 
dinner  soon  after.  The  Master  was  not  present  as  He  was  obliged  to  go  away 
on  business  directly  after  our  return,  to  the  house  of  one  of  the  government 
officials.  We  had  a  pleasant  evening  in  the  apartment  of  the  "Greatest  Leaf," 
reading  tablets,  singing,  visiting,  etc., — after  which  we  retired. 

Next  morning,  March  22d,  Mr.  Getsinger  came  and  was  welcomed  by  our 
Lord,  who  kissed  him  tenderly  on  both  cheeks  and  bade  him  sit  beside  Him 
while  he  wrote  many  tablets,  occasionally  smiling  and  speaking  a  few  words  to 
him,  asking  after  his  health,  if  he  were  happy,  etc. — though  writing  all  the 
time.  The  great  power  of  the  Spirit  is  very  apparent  when  He  is  thus  occu- 
pied, and  it  is  a  blessing  to  be  in  His  presence.  All  the  day  long  He  was  very 
busy  as  many  people  came  to  Him,  but  in  the  evening  He  came  into  the  room 
where  His  son-in-law,  Mousin  Effendi,  Mr.  Getsinger  and  myself  were  sitting 
(we  bowing  before  Him  as  He  entered)  and  sat  down  upon  the  sofa,  telling  my 
husband  to  sit  by  His  side,  while  He  motioned  me  to  my  accustomed  place  at 
His  feet.  Then,  putting  one  arm  around  him  and  laying  Mr.  Getsinger's  head  on 
His  shoulder,  at  the  same  time  gently  stroking  my  head  with  His  other  hand,  He 
began  talking  'to  us,  His  son-in-law  interpreting  what  He  said.  "My  children," 
He  began,  "tomorrow  you  leave  us,  and  while  we  would  love  to  see  you  always, 
would  always  love  to  have  you  with  us,  it  is  better  that  you  should  go  and  work 
in  the  cause  of  God,  for  thereby  He  will  open  upon  your  faces  the  door  of  His 
gifts  and  shower  upon  you  His  blessings.  Have  no  fears,  God  is  with  you,  and 
with  all  those  who  are  striving  to  advance  His  Truth  throughout  your  country. 
You  must  say  to  all  the  Believers  in  America  that  I  love  them  and  pray  for 
them,  and  in  turn  I  desire  that  they  love  and  pray  for  each  other,  ever  seeking 
to  be  united  together,  living  in  harmony  and  concord,  for  where  division  is  God 
is  not.  The  law  of  His  whole  universe  is  unity,  and  discord  must  in  no  wise 
enter  in  among  you.  You  must  be  kind  to  each  other  and  act  toward  each  other 
like  true  children  of  the  Kingdom — thus  you  will  all  please  me  and  please  our 
Father  Who  art  in  heaven."  Oh,  if  you  could  have  seen  the  expression  of  love 
and  tenderness  on  His  face  as  He  uttered  these  words — it  seemed  that  His  whole 
great,  noble  soul  was  pleading  for  the  complete  union  in  every  respect  of  the 
Believers  in  America.  Oh,  I  beg  of  all  of  you  to  love  each  other  as  He,  our  Lord, 
loves  all  of  us.  If  you  see  faults  in  each  other,  overlook  them  quickly  and  for- 
give them — for  His  dear  sake!  He  then  sent  His  son-in-law  for  some  bread  and 
syrup,  made  from  the  juice  of  pomegranates,  which  he  brought  and  placed  before 
Him  on  a  low  table.  Our  Master  took  the  bread  and  breaking  it  dipped  it  into 
the  syrup  and  gave  a  piece  to  Mr.  Getsinger,  another  to  me,  and  took  one  Him- 
self; then  told  us  to  eat  it, — which  we  did, — it  tasting  most  delicious,  after  which 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


481 


He,  smiling  sweetly,  said;  "Now  I  send  you  out  into  the  world  to  give  to  the 
hungry  souls  who  are  seeking  to  know  their  God — the  "Bread  of  Life,"  which  is 
the  Word  of  God,  and  to  show  them  how  sweet  is  the  "Water  of  Life,"  which  is 
faith  in  God." 

Then  He  talked  about  our  journey,  inquiring  most  carefully  how  long  it 
would  take,  land  telling  us,  when  we  reached  Cairo,  that  we  should  see  Mirza 
Abdul  Fazl  and  Abdul  Karim,  who  would  tell  us  some  things  we  wished  to  know. 
(.Mirza  Abdul  Fazl  is.  we  find,  a  most  learned  man.  He  knows  the  Bible  by 
heart  and  is  a  great  historian.)  He  then  told  us  that  He  wished  us  to  be  in 
America  in  six  weeks  after  we  left  Acca,  so  our  stay  in  Cairo  must  be  short. 
Arising  and  bidding  us  "good  night,"  He  went  to  sleep. 

Thursday,  March  23d,  our  last  day  at  the  Holy  Household,  was  a  beautiful 
day.  Early  in  the  morning  Rooha  Khanum  called  me  and  arising  hastily  I  went 
with  her  to  the  room  of  the  "Greatest  Leaf,"  where  the  Master  was  sitting.  He 
bade  me  welcome  as  I  entered,  and  I  knelt  before  Him,  kissing  His  hand,  and 
then  sat  down  at  His  feet  beside  the  "Holy  Leaf,"  and  we  drank  tea  together. 
As  I  looked  at  Him  and  thought  "I  must  leave  Him  today,"  the  tears  came  to  my 
eyes  and  my  heart  was  very  heavy,  though  I  tried  hard  to  conceal  my  feelings. 
He  noticed  it  and  said:  "Do  not  cry — be  happy.  I  will  go  with  you  in  spirit 
—the  separation  of  the  body  is  nothing.  I  will  go  with  you."  I  dried 
my  eyes  and  went  with  Him  to  the  room  where  He  writes,  and  with  Rooha 
Khanum  sat  down  while  He  began  His  work  for  the  day.  He  took  up  Mr.  Chase's 
picture  which  was  on  the  divan  beside  Kim- — also  one  of  Mr.  Clark  and  one  of 
Mr.  Struven  (pupils  of  mine  in  Ithaca) — and,  looking  at  them,  kissed  first  one 
and  then  another,  then  turned  and  said:  "You  must  tell  them  that  I  kissed 
their  pictures  and  am  glad  to  have  them;  that  they  are  my  sons  and  my  heart 
longs  to  see  them  so  that  I  may  kiss  them." 

Soon  after  He  called  Mr.  Getsinger  into  the  room  and  gave  him  a  bottle 
containing  juice  of  pomegranate;  also  to  each  of  us  a  small  bottle  of  oil  of 
roses.  Shortly  before  noon  He  went  out  and  we  watched  Him  as  He  walked 
through  the  court,  for  we  wanted  to  see  Him  as  much  as  possible.  After  a  little 
time  He  returned  and  sat  down  to  luncheon  with  us,  one  on  each  side  of  Him. 
We  could  scarcely  swallow  for  we  well  knew  it  was  our  last  meal  with  Him,  and 
the  thought  of  parting  was  breaking  our  hearts!  As  we  left  the  table,  a  ser- 
vant said:  "The  carriage  is  ready" — so  then  began  the  "Good-byes"  which  were 
painful  in  the  extreme,  though  everybody  was  trying  to  be  brave,  but  it  was 
impossible — we  all  cried — and  when  we  went  to  our  Lord  I  was  faint  and  sick. 
He  came  quickly  from  the  room  and,  taking  me  by  the  hand,  led  me  down  one 
flight  of  stairs,  and  I  pressed  His  hand  to  my  lips,  while  He  turned  away  and 
silently  kissed  Mr.  Getsinger — then  left  us  hastily.  When  I  reached  the  court 
below  it  seemed  that  the  sun  grew  dark  for  I  realized  I  would  not  see  Him  again, 
and  the  pain  of  it  was  awful! 

We  rode  in  silence  back  to  Haifa  and  very  soon  went  on  board  the  steamer. 
From  the  deck  we  watched  Acca  fade  cut  of  sight,  and  then  I  knew  that  only 
my  body  was  going  away  for  I  had  left  my  heart  there — at  His  feet. 

Please  give  my  love  to  all  the  Believers,  and  tell  them  to  all  be  firm  in 
the  faith  for  this  is  the  Glorious  Truth  and  we  will  live  forever  and  ever. 
I  am  yours  faithfully  in  the  cause  of  God, 

(Signed)    LUA  M.  GETSINGER. 

LETTER  FROM  MRS.  GETSINGER  TO  THE  ASSEMBLY  IN  CHICAGO. 

To  the  Assembly  in  Chicago,  Greetings: 

We  reached  Haifa  Thursday,  December  8th,  about  10:30  p.  m.,  and  were 
met  by  Dr.  Kheiralla  and  two  or  three  Babis;  they  all  welcomed  us  heartily 
and  conducted  us  to  a  coffee  house  where  we  were  served  with  refreshments. 
An  old  man  was  there  waiting  for  us  and  he,  as  I  was  afterwards  informed,  is 
the  uncle  of  the  Greatest  Branch,  and  was  sent  by  the  latter  to  welcome  us. 
Never  have  I  seen  a  face  more  full  of  love  and  kindness.  He  saluted  us  and  his 
countenance  beamed  with  pleasure  while  he  expressed  himself  as  being  so 


48a 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


thankful  upon  our  safe  arrival.  After  drinking  some  tea,  we  went  from  this 
place  to  our  hotel,  several  of  the  Believers  walking.  The  streets  are  very  nar- 
row and  dark,  so  a  man,  the  hotel-keeper,  walked  ahead  of  us  with  a  lantern  to 
light  the  way.  Our  friends  remained  conversing  with  us  at  the  hotel  until  after 
midnight,  excepting  the  old  gentleman;  he  did  not  accompany  us,  as  it  was 
late  and  he  desired  to  leave  early  the  next  morning  for  Acca  to  report  our 
arrival  to  the  Greatest  Branch — our  Master. 

We  slept  but  little  that  night,  our  minds  being  occupied  with  the  thoughts 
that  perhaps  tomorrow  we  shall  see  Him,  and  kiss  the  hem  of  the  blessed  gar- 
ment of  our  Lord.  We  arose  early  the  next  morning,  our  hearts  eagerly  expect- 
ant, but  all  day  no  word  came. 

In  the  evening  we  were  invited  to  the  house  of  Housyn  Effendi  (one  of 
the  Believers  living  in  Acca),  and  upon  our  arrival  he  met  us  at  the  door,  wel- 
comed us,  saying  that  he  was  the  bearer  of  good  news  to  us.  He  had  received 
a  letter  from  Abbas  Effendi  that  day  stating  "He  would  be  pleased  to  welcome 
us  on  the  morrow,  and  that  His  heart  longed  to  see  the  first  American  pil- 
grims." We  went  back  to  our  hotel  after  spending  a  most  delightful  evening, 
our  host  and  hostess  taking  great  pains  to  make  us  happy,  showing  us  every 
kindness  and  hospitality;  often  remarking  that  we  must  not  consider  ourselves 
guests,  for  their  house  was  ours,  and  everything  they  had  at  our  disposal. 

As  you  may  imagine,  sleep  was  out  of  the  question  that  night,  my  hus- 
band and  I  were  talking  all  the  time,  and  congratulating  ourselves  upon  our 
great  blessings  and  good  fortune,  and  counting  the  hours  which  passed  too 
slowly,  until  the  dawn  of  the  morrow  should  come!  We  arose  early,  dressing 
ourselves  with  great  care,  feeling  the  best  we  had  was  not  half  good  enough  to 
wear  upon  this  our  first  visit  to  the  Holy  City,  and  shortly  after  8  o'clock  the 
carriage  drove  up  and  Dr.  Kheiralla,  his  daughter,  my  husband  and  myself 
started  for  the  place  of  all  places,  the  New  Jerusalem,  the  Holy  Abode  of  the 
Most  High  and  the  Dwelling  Place  of  our  Gracious  Lord. 

It  is  about  five  miles  from  Haifa  to  Acca — the  road  close  to  the  sea — in- 
deed in  the  sea,  for  the  horses  were  walking  in  the  water,  and  at  times  the 
waves  dashed  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  wheels.  After  riding  about  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  we  could  see  the  city  in  the  distance;  it  was  a  beautiful  morning  and 
as  we  looked  we  could  but  think  of  the  description  in  the  Bible,  "a  city  all  of 
gold  beside  a  crystal  sea."  It  was  bathed  in  a  flood  of  golden  sunshine  and 
the  sea  splashing  up  against  its  walls  sparkled  with  splendor.  We  gradually 
approached  nearer  and  nearer  until  at  last  we  passed  "the  shed  which  serves  as 
a  coffee  house  outside  the  wall,"  and  entered  the  city  by  its  "solitary  gate," 
and  drove  straight  to  the  house  of  Abbas  Effendi.  We  entered  the  garden, 
ascended  one  flight  of  stairs,  and  were  shown  into  a  hall,  or  reception  room, 
where  we  removed  our  wraps,  and  we  were  welcomed  by  the  uncle,  who  told 
us  to  pass  into  the  next  room.  Dr.  Kheiralla  went  ahead,  and  by  the  violent  beat- 
ing of  my  heart  I  knew  we  were  soon  to  behold  the  blessed  face  of  the  Prince 
of  the  House  of  David,  the  King  of  the  whole  world.  We  reached  the  door  and 
stopped — before  us  in  the  center  of  the  room  stood  a  man  clad  in  a  long  raiment 
with  a  white  turban  upon  His  head,  stretching  one  hand  out  toward  us,  while 
His  face  (which  I  cannot  describe)  was  lighted  by  a  rare  sweet  smile  of  joy 
and  welcome!  We  stood  thus  for  a  moment  unable  to  move — then  my  heart 
gave  a  great  throb  and,  scarcely  knowing  what  I  was  doing,  I  held  out  my 
arms,  crying,  "My  Lord,  my  Lord!!"  and  rushed  to  Him,  kneeling  at  His  blessed 
feet,  sobbing  like  a  child!  He  put  His  dear  hands  upon  our  bowed  heads  and 
said,  in  a  voice  that  seemed  to  our  ears  like  a  strain  of  sweet  music,  "Welcome, 
welcome,  my  dear  children,  you  are  welcome;  arise  and  be  of  good  cheer." 
Then  He  sat  down  upon  a  low  divan  and  we  sat  on  one  side  almost  facing  Him, 
Dr.  Kheiralla  and  his  daughter  on  the  other  side,  and  He  began  to  talk  to  us. 
To  my  husband  He  said  that  "He  should  prosper  in  his  scientific  work,  and  God 
would  bless  him  and  enable  him  to  do  good  in  many  directions.  And  as  the 
vibrations  of  light  emanating  from  the  sun  magnetize  the  earth,  so  should  the 
Word  of  God  magnetize  the  hearts  and  draw  them  from  the  West  to  mingle 
in  love  with  the  hearts  in  the  East."   He  remained  with  us  but  a  few  moments 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


483 


(as  His  time  was  so  fully  occupied)  when  He  arose  and  again  bidding  us  "wel- 
come" went  into  another  room  where  He  writes  and  meets  those  who  come  to 
Him  for  help  and  counsel. 

We  were  then  taken  into  another  room,  where  we  met  the  Greatest  Holy- 
Leaf  and  many  other  ladies.  They  welcomed  us  very  graciously,  the  Holy  Leaf 
taking  Dr.  Kheiralla's  daughter  and  myself  in  her  arms  and  kissing  us  very 
tenderly  on  both  cheeks;  then  they  made  tea  for  us  and  showed  us  great  kind- 
ness! We  remained  conversing  with  them  until  noon,  then  she  took  us  by  the 
hand  and  led  us  to  the  table,  seating  one  on  each  side  of  her  and  serving  us 
most  beautifully  with  many  varieties  of  food,  which  were  very  good  indeed. 
After  dinner  we  were  served  with  coffee,  the  fragrance  and  flavor  of  which  was 
most  delicious.  Then  a  servant  brought  us  some  meats  from  the  Greatest  Branch, 
and  such  a  generous  supply  that  I  am  going  to  bring  them  home  that  you  all 
may  taste. 

In  the  afternoon  they  read  tablets  aloud  and  told  us  many  interesting 
things  connected  with  the  early  history  of  the  Babis;  so  swiftly  did  the  time 
pass  that  we  were  quite  astonished  when  dinner  was  announced;  they  served  a 
special  menu  for  us,  as  they  eat  much  later  than  we  do,  but  so  anxious  was  I 
to  see  my  Lord  again  that  I  begged  He  would  at  least  come  into  the  room 
with  us;  this  request  was  more  than  granted,  for  He  came  and  sat  at  the  table, 
seating  me  on  His  right  and  my  husband  at  His  left.  I  felt  too  happy  to  eat 
and  sat  with  my  eyes  riveted  upon  His  glorious  face.  He  turned  toward  me 
and,  sweetly  smiling,  said:  "The  love  of  God  burning  in  your  heart  is  manifest 
upon  your  face  and  it  gives  us  joy  to  look  upon  you.''  I  then  called  his  atten- 
tion to  St.  Luke  14:15,  "Blessed  is  he  who  shall  eat  bread  in  the  Kingdom  of 
God."  He  thereupon  took  up  the  loaf  and  broke  it  and  gave  each  one  of  us  a 
piece  of  the  same.  I  have  kept  mine  and  am  also  going  to  bring  it  that  you 
may  see  it.  After  the  meal  was  over  He  left  us  and  went  out,  as  He  had  some- 
thing to  attend  to,  and  did  not  return  until  11  o'clock;  then  He  came  into  the 
room  where  we  were  sitting  (all  of  us  rising  as  He  entered  and  bowing  low 
before  Him)  and  sat  down  and  began  talking  to  us  in  a  low,  soft,  musical  voice. 
My  husband  asked  permission  to  sit  nearer  to  Him,  which  He  granted,  and  sat 
him  down  at  His  right;  I  longed  intensely  to  go  nearer,  but  said  nothing.  After 
a  moment  He  turned  toward  me,  smiled,  and  waived  His  hand  that  I  also  might 
come.  I  sat  down  at  His  blessed  feet,  while  He  took  my  hand  and,  looking 
down  upon  me  tenderly  as  a  loving  father,  He  sat  and  conversed  with  us  nearly 
half  an  hour;  then  He  arose,  bade  us  good  night,  blessing  us,  and  we  all  re- 
tired. I  couldn't  sleep!  My  heart  was  too  full!  I  was  too  infinitely  happy.  I 
could  only  live  over  and  over  again  the  precious  moments  I  had  spent  in  His 
presence  and  long  to  see  Him  once  more. 

I  fell  into  a  sweet  sleep  just  as  morn  was  breaking,  after  which  I  awoke 
feeling  greatly  refreshed,  and  arose,  dressing  myself,  impatient  to  be  among  my 
friends  and  the  holy  people,  for  1  felt  each  moment  with  them  to  be  a  great 
blessing  indeed,  and  every  word  from  their  lips  to  be  a  precious  gem.  Miss 
Kheiralla  and  I  went  to  the  apartment  of  the  Greatest  Leaf,  who  kissed  us  and 
inquired  if  we  had  rested  well.  Then  a  servant  brought  us  some  nice  fruit  and 
each  a  beautiful  bouquet  of  flowers  from  the  Greatest  Branch,  who  had  sent  her 
to  ask  if  we  were  well  and  comfortable. 

During  the  day  we  were  conducted  to  the  special  garden  of  the  Manifes- 
tation, the  one  (according  to  Dr.  Kheiralla)  described  in  the  prophecies  thus: 
"The  place  of  my  throne  is  part  on  the  water  and  part  on  the  land,  under  a 
green  tent  that  has  neither  ropes  nor  a  center  pole  to  sustain  it."  And  it  is 
literally  so,  for  this  garden  is  on  a  small  island,  a  river  on  each  side  of  it,  and 
there  are  two  places  built,  upon  which  the  Manifestation  nsed  to  sit,  one  in  the 
east  and  one  in  the  west  of  the  garden,  and  these  places  are  built  in  such  a  way 
that  they  are  '"part  on  the  water  and  part  on  the  land,"  then  two  large  trees, 
one  in  each  end  of  the  garden,  their  branches  meeting  in  the  center,  form  the 
green  tent  most  perfectly.  In  this  most  beautiful  spot  we  sat  down  upon  the 
seats  before  "His  throne,"  and  were  served  with  tea  by  those  who  accompanied 
us  thither,  also  the  gardener  brought  us  fruits  and  flowers  from  the  "garden  of 


484 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


our  Glorious  God,"  and  they  were  delicious,  both  to  taste  and  see.  In  one  part 
of  this  place  is  a  small  cottage  where  the  Manifestation  used  sometimes  to  stay, 
and  we  were  permitted  to  enter  this  also,  to  go  into  the  room  which  He  always 
occupied,  kneel  before  the  chair  upon  which  He  sat,  and  to  kiss  the  place  upon 
which  the  soles  of  His  feet  rested.  The  spiritual  atmosphere  of  this  place  was 
overwhelming;  our  tears  fell  like  rain  over  our  faces,  and  some  of  the  Believ- 
ers with  us  cried  aloud.  Indeed,  to  enter  this  room  is  a  great  blessing.  I  have 
felt  nearer  to  God  since  that  day!  On  the  chair  was  a  wreath  of  flowers,  and 
some  beautiful  cut  roses  placed  there  by  the  Greatest  Branch,  who  commanded 
that  they  should  be  given  to  us  (my  husband,  Dr.  Kheiralla,  his  daughter  and 
myself);  also  four  large  oranges,  which  were  on  the  table  opposite,  as  we  left 
that  most  sacred  place. 

From  here  we  were  taken  to  the  tomb  of  the  Manifestation,  and  you  must 
excuse  me  if  I  do  not  enter  into  detail  about  this,  I  cannot  find  words  to  ex- 
press myself,  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  Greatest  Branch  let  me  walk  in  Hij 
footsteps  and  led  me  by  the  hand  into  this  sacred  place,  where  I  knelt  down 
and  begged  of  God  to  cleanse  my  heart  from  all  impurity  and  kindle  within  it 
the  fire  of  His  love.  I  also  remembered  there  the  Assembly  in  Chicago  anc 
begged  God's  blessing  to  be  showered  upon  you.  After  this  visit  we  walked  in 
the  garden  and  our  Lord,  with  His  own  blessed  hands,  picked  flowers  and  leaves 
which  He  gave  us  to  take  to  the  faithful  Believers  in  America. 

That  night  He  sat  us  all  at  the  table,  and  dismissed  the  servants,  saying 
He  would  serve  us  Himself,  and  He  did  so.  He  did  not  sit  at  the  table  witt 
us,  but  waited  upon  us!  At  the  conclusion  of  the  meal  He  said:  "I  have  servec 
you  tonight  that  you  may  learn  the  lesson  of  ever  .serving  your  fellow  crea- 
tures with  love  and  kindness."  He  bade  us  good-night  and  advised  us  all  tc 
rest  early,  so  we  went  to  bed  and  this  night  I  had  a  long  delicious  sleep  anc 
rest. 

The  next  morning  He  brought  me  a  most  beautiful  bunch  of  white  narcis- 
sus and  allowed  me  to  kiss  His  blessed  hand  as  He  gave  them  to  me.  He  sa 
down  and  drank  tea  with  us,  then  rose  and  bade  us  "adieu,"  as  we  were  goin* 
back  to  Haifa  that  day  and  He  had  been  called  away.  As  we  were  quitting  th« 
city  we  saw  Him  standing  by  the  gate,  and  He  smiled  at  us  as  we  passed 
Then  we  returned  "by  the  road  in  the  sea"  to  Haifa,  our  hearts  both  happy  anc 
sorrowful,  happy  because  we  had  seen  Him  and  sorrowful  because  we  wen 
leaving  Him. 

Oh,  dear  people,  make  firm  your  faith  and  belief,  for  truly  He  is  our  Lord 
It  seems  to  me  that  no  one  could  doubt  should  He  smile  upon  them,  and  no  on< 
could  turn  from  Him  should  He  seek  to  confirm  them!  But  this  He  will  no 
do,  as  God  had  declared  that  each  must  seek  to  confirm  himself  and  gave  t< 
each  of  us  the  power  or  will  for  that  purpose.  I  feel  these  words  are  very  weal 
and  inadequate,  but  I  assure  you  no  one  could  describe  this  place  and  'tis  foolisl 
to  try — to  know  each  must  see  for  himself,  therefore  pray  God  earnestly  tha 
the  blessing  of  coming  here  may  soon  be  bestowed.  There  is  no  other  place  ii 
the  world  worth  seeing,  and  surely  no  other  King  worthy  of  homage. 

And  now  I  send  you  all  my  love  and  pray  God  to  bless  you  all  now  anc 
forever!  May  your  hearts  all  be  united,  and  your  souls  become  as  one  sou 
living  in  separate  bodies.  Thus  you  will  resemble  our  Lord,  and  draw  neare 
unto  God,  the  loving  Father  of  us  all! 

Your  loving  sister  and  co-worker  in  the  cause, 

LUA    MOORE  GETSINGER. 

LETTER  FROM   MRS.  KHEIRALLA  TO  THE   ASSEMBLY   IN  CHICAGO 

Haifa,  Syria,  February,  1899. 

To  the  Akbab  in  Chicago: 

Dear  Brothers  and  Sisters— Though  you  have  already  received  news  of  ou 
visit  to  the  Holy  City,  both  from  my  husband  and  from  Mrs.  Getsinger,  yet 
feel  sure  you  are  as  thirsty  as  I  am  to  hear  and  know  everything  you  can  lean 
about  the  great  Point  of  Revelation  who  is  now  the  clear  Channel  of  the  Ligh 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


485 


id  Truth  of  God  upon  this  earth;  and  so  you  will  be  glad  to  have  another 
jscription  of  our  visit  here  from  me. 

As  you  will  understand,  the  great  difficulty  of  writing  such  an  account  lies 
the  fact  that  any  statement  at  all  about  conditions  here  seems  dull  and  bare 
id  colorless  besides  the  reality  and  also  that  though  the  outer  expression  and 
irment  of  this  Radiance  is  beautiful,  yet  after  all  its  great  glory  and  perfec- 
on  is  spiritual,  to  be  discerned  by  the  soul  that  is  spiritually  awakened,  and 
so  according  to  the  degree  of  the  enlightenment  of  each  individual  soul,  and  as 
lly  to  those  who  have  sacrificed  everything  is  the  true  greatness  revealed  and 
iderstood,  therefore  I  can  only  tell  you  little;  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  speak 
lout  the  chiefest  realities  here,  but  only  of  those  which  are  cognizant  to  the 
:ere  outer  sense  (so  to  Speak)  of  the  soul.  But  I  feel  that  God  will  aid  my 
ideavor  to  show  you  something  of  this  greatness  and  supply  to  your  souls  that 
hich  is  lacking  in  my  words;  and  I  am  entirely  sure  that  it  will  be  with  you 
5  it  is  with  us,  that  the  more  you  know  the  more  you  will  love.  Do  not  be 
'raid  of  loving  and  trusting  our  Lord  entirely  and  unreservedly,  and  of  sac- 
ficing  yourselves  and  everything  you  possess  with  a  great  gladness  for  His 
ive  and  the  love  of  El-Beha,  for  the  only  thing  worth  living  for  is  to  do  the 
ill  of  our  God  and  serve  our  Lord,  who  is  the  great  Ideal,  to  whom  we  can 
ive  all  our  heart's  love  without  fear  of  betrayal  or  disappointment,  and  after 
hose  example  we  must  all  pattern,  if  we  indeed  desire  to  attain  the  likeness 
J  the  Sons  of  God.  i 

There  is  just  one  thing  I  wish  to  say  before  I  begin  the  account  of  our 
isit  here — and  it  is  this— that  indeed  we  cannot  thank  God  enough  for  sending 
3  the  knowledge  of  this,  His  Most  Great  Revelation,  and  that  also  we  ought 
ideed  to  honor  and  respect  with  a  great  honor  the  one  through  whose  instru- 
lentality  we  have  been  brought  from  darkness  to  light,  from  misery  and  con- 
lsion  to  peace,  and  to  a  great  and  endless  happiness  in  the  Kingdom  of  El- 
eha;  personally,  I  feel  I  cannot  thank  my  dear  husband  enough  for  bringing 
le  this  which  is  more  than  all  our  earthly,  for  of  what  use  or  benefit  is  all  our 
fe  without  this  great  knowledge. 

In  order  to  picture  our  footsteps  here  clearly  before  you,  I  will  begin  with 
ur  journey  from  Haifa,  for  it  is  there,  as  you  know,  that  the  traveler  lands, 
ecause  the  steamboats  do  not  stop  at  Acca. 

The  way  from  Haifa  to  Acca  is,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  sandy  seashore, 
rhich  is  in  the  form  of  a  half  hoop — Haifa  being  at  one  end  of  this,  with 
lount  Oarmel  rising  up  behind  the  town,  and  Acca  at  the  other,  and  lying 
lmost  at  the  end  of  the  promontory  that  ends  the  half  circle  of  the  bay.  On 
bright  sunny  day,  such  as  it  was  when  I  paid  my  first  visit  to  the  Holy  City, 
Lcca  stands  out  white  and  glistening  as  a  dove's  wing  at  the  foot  of  some  dis- 
ant  blue  hills,  and  on  the  border  of  the  "tide! ess  sea"  excellent  in  situation, 
he  joy  of  the  whole  earth!  How  the  heart  of  the  pilgrim  throbs  with  expecta- 
ion,  love  and  awe  as  he  comes  gradually  nearer  and  nearer  the  long  hoped  for 
;oal,  and  white  and  gray  and  brown  house-sides  stand  out  clearer  and  ever 
tearer,  until  at  last  he  enters  the  city  gate,  drives  through  its  narrow,  crooked 
treets  and  archways,  and  at  last,  alighting  in  front  of  a  large,  strongly  built 
tone  house  (formerly  the  Governor's  residence),  enters  the  courtyard  with  its 
ittle  tiled  garden,  passes  up  a  flight  of  steps  that  leads  to  the  living  part  of 
he  house  which  is  on  the  first  floor,  finds  himself  in  an  open  stone  passage 
pith  many  doors  opening  out  on  to  it,  and  entering  the  first  one  opposite  him, 
inds  himself  at  last  in  the  presence  of  our  dear  Lord  Himself! 

What  does  he  see?  A  small  room  containing  two  broad  divans,  on  both 
f  which  are  writing  materials,  a  large  window  with  cushions  on  the  floor  be- 
.eath,  a  square  Persian  rug  in  the  middle,  and  sitting  on  one  of  the  divans  with 
/riting  materials  in  hand,  writing  and  answering  any  questions  that  may  be 
ut  to  Him  by  those  around,  is  the  blessed  Center  of  Revelation.  He  is  dressed 
n  a  large  loose  dark  blue  cloak  an  under  robe  of  dull  pink  lined  with  fur, 
rhite  linen  showing  at  the  neck,  and  on  His  head  a  white  fez  with  many  folds 
f  fine  white  muslin  wrapped  around  its  base.  But  as  for  His  face,  who  can 
escribe  it?  for  it  is  not  His  features  with  the  long  finely  chiselled  nose,  the 


486 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


soft  gray-brown  eyes,  with  their  long  and  firm  eyelashes,  nor  the  black  pen- 
ciled gray  hair,  that  alone  draws  and  attracts  the  heart  of  the  beholder,  as 
with  a  drop  of  living  fire;  it  is  the  living  soul  that  looks  out  of  those  loving 
eyes,  so  full  of  sympathy  and  so  full  of  spiritual  power;  it  is  the  glorious  per- 
sonality behind  the  veil  that  draws  towards  Him,  as  with  an  unseen  magnet, 
the  hearts  of  all  those  who  are  seeking  their  God! ! 

I  must  apologize  for  now  being  obliged  to  intrude  myself  in  the  coming 
pages,  for  that  which  I  can  chiefly  relate  are  experiences  and  conversations  in 
which  I  took  part,  and  it  is  by  narrating  these  that  I  can  best  mirror  the  great 
light  here,  however  faintly:  and  my  experience  will  also  show  each  one  what  he 
too  can  expect,  for  our  Lord's  love  is  not  confined  to  one  or  two. 

Immediately  I  found  myself  in  the  blessed  presences,  I  threw  myself  on 
my  knees  before  Him  and  sobbed  aloud  from  the  stress  of  the  various  emotions 
that  filled  my  soul.  He  gave  me  His  dear  hands  to  kiss  (such  fine,  delicate 
hands  they  are!)  and  patted  me  tenderly  on  my  cheeks  and  shoulders,  saying 
in  His  gentle  voice,  "La  la  la  marhabba,"  "You  are  welcome,  be  at  ease — be 
happy,"  and  congratulated  me  on  having  accomplished  the  journey,  inquired  if 
it»had  been  an  easy  one,  how  I  was  feeling,  and  so  on.  Then  He  sent  to  call 
my  husband,  who  was  not  expecting  my  arrival  so  soon.  He  came  running  in, 
and  he  and  his  two  dear  daughters  welcomed  me,  and  we  all  felt  most  thankful 
to  meet  at  last  at  the  Holy  House.  But  all  our  personal  feelings  were  sub- 
merged in  the  great  fact  of  being  in  the  presence  of  "Mowlana,"  as  He  is  chiefly 
called  by  the  Akbab — that  being  the  Arabic  word  for  "our  Lord" — so  I  turned 
and  knelt  again  in  front  of  the  divan  on  which  He  was  sitting,  and  then  He 
looked  so  lovingly  and  kindly  upon  me  and  said  to  my  husband  that  the  light 
of  the  children  of  the  Kingdom  shone  in  my  face,  and  that  I  had  a  very  good 
pure  heart,  and  other  kind  things. 

But  soon  I  was  taken  to  see  the  ladies  of  the  Holy  Household,  and  into 
the  open  stone  passage  again,  which,  after  turning  sharply  at  a  right  angle, 
opened  into  a  much  wider  hall  paved  with  mosaics.  In  the  center  of  the  wall 
that  bounds  the  hall  on  the  right  side,  hangs  a  large  red  curtain.  This  was 
lifted,  and  I  found  myself  in  a  long  room  lighted  by  three  windows  facing  the 
entrance,  and  which  were  shielded  by  wooden  lattice-worked  screens.  Along 
the  wall  beneath  the  windows  is  a  long  divan,  while  on  the  two  other  sides  of 
the  room  were  cushions  spread  on  the  floor.  The  rest  of  the  furniture  consists 
chiefly  of  a  beautiful  brass  charcoal  brazier,  and  beside  it  on  the  floor  is  a  big 
brass  tray,  holding  a  large  kettle  and  receptacle  for  heating  water  with  charcoal 
embers  (a  samovar). 

Here  I  was  introduced  to  the  wife  of  our  Master,  who  has  a  face  beaming 
with  motherly  love  and  kindness,  and  also  to  His  sister,  the  Most  Holy  Leaf, 
whose  thin,  worn  saintly  face  smiles  lovingly  at  all,  and  to  His  four  daughters, 
blessed  girls!  and  to  many  women  and  attendants  of  the  Holy  Household.  They 
kissed  me  on  either  cheek,  and  folded  me  in  their  arms,  and  then  the  Most 
Holy  Leaf,  Behya-Khanum,  sat  down  on  the  divan  and  motioned  me  to  sit 
beside  her.  They  began  asking  many  questions  in  Arabic,  which  my  husband's 
daughter  kindly  translated  for  me,  asking  about  my  journey,  health,  and  so  on, 
and  gave  me  tea  and  biscuits,  an  invariable  accompaniment  in  a  Persian  visit. 

Before  long  I  heard  a  little  stir  in  the  hall,  the  sound  of  approaching 
footsteps,  then  a  murmur  of  "Mowlana,  Mowlana,"  and  the  blessed  figure  ap- 
peared in  the  doorway  and  came  towards  me.  Everyone  sprang  up  hastily  from 
cushions  and  divan  and  stood  with  folded  hands.  He  asked  me  how  I  was 
feeling,  hoped  I  was  better  and  happy,  told  me  that  I  was  to  feel  that  this  was 
my  home,  and  asked  if  I  needed  anything;  to  all  of  which  I  told  my  dear  Lord 
that  I  was  very  happy,  that  I  thanked  God  with  all  my  heart  for  this  greatest 
blessing  bestowed  upon  me  of  being  permitted  to  come  to  the  Holy  House,  and 
that  I  was  crying  because  my  heart  had  longed  and  hungered  for  such  a  long 
time  to  be  there,  and  that  now  at  last  I  had  attained!  He  smiled,  patted  me 
Hgain.  let  me  kiss  His  hands,  and  then  went  out,  whereupon  a  sort  of  general 
\h  went  round,  and  then  all  sat  down  again  on  cushions  and  divan.  Then 
ued  more  struggles  to  express  our  feelings  and  answer  questions  put  in  an 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


487 


unknown  tongue,  until  lunch  was  announced,  of  which  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Getsinger, 
my  husband  and  daughters  and  I  partook  together. 

After  lunch  and  a  rest,  I  was  called  to  have  an  interview  with  our  Lord 
in  another  room,  and  Mrs.  Getsinger,  who  had  been  the  first  to  see  me  arrive 
and  welcome  me,  went  with  me.  I  asked  Him  some  questions,  and  He  told  me 
that  I  must  live  and  work  for  the  Cause — that  He  wished  me  to  be  as  He  is — 
to  be  absolutely  indifferent  to  praise  or  blame,  whether  I  eat  or  do  not  eat,  sleep 
or  not,  am  in  comfortable  or  uncomfortable  surroundings,  with  friends  or  ene- 
mies; all  these  things  must  be  as  nothing  to  me,  for  I  must  cut  my  heart  from 
myself  and  from  the  world,  and  must  look  to  my  God  only,  and  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  my  Lord  in  all  things  (who  is  loving  to  all  in  look,  word  and  action, 
even  to  those  who  wish  to  harm  and  oppose  Him),  and  that  then  I  would 
receive  great  spiritual  gifts  and  blessings.  Many  other  things  He  said,  but  of 
course  I  cannot  attempt  to  write  everything,  or  this  account  would  never  go  off; 
and  besides,  some  things  were  too  purely  personal.  After  the  interview  was 
over,  and  we  had  returned  to  the  women's  apartment,  one  came  in,  bringing 
both  Mrs.  Getsinger  and  myself  a  bunch  of  violets  from  our  Lord;  these  treas- 
ured flowers  are  carefully  pressed. 

That,  evening  we  all  had  dinner  with  His  Holiness,  who  seated  me  on 
His  right  hand,  as  I  was  the  newest  guest,  and  Mrs.  Getsinger  on  His  left. 
Blessed  indeed  is  he  who  eats  bread  in  the  Kingdom  of  God!  He  helped  us  all 
to  the  various  courses  of  food  as  they  were  placed  on  the  table,  and  most 
lovingly  and  carefully  looked  after  our  needs.  He  talked  much  of  America,  and 
said  that  if  the  Believers  there  will  live  in  real  love  and  harmony  with  one 
another,  as  one  soul  living  in  different  bodies,  that  the  greatest  blessings  are  in 
store  for  that  country,  but  that  if  they  do  not,  the  blessings  will  be  deferred. 
His  heart  is  very  full  of  love  to  all  the  Believers  there  and  He  rejoices  greatly, 
and  all  the  Holy  people  with  Him,  when  new  applications  arrive  and  new  names 
are  received  into  the  Kingdom.  He  said  also  that  England  shall  be  blessed, 
and  should  receive  light  from  America,  and  that  when  her  people  learned  the 
Truth  they  would  be  very  solid  in  it. 

He  emphasized  the  condition  of  mutual  love  as  being  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance if  we  wish  to  gain  anything  spiritually  and  has  spoken  of  its  absolute 
necessity  many  times.  In  one  conversation  He  said  that  as  everything  around 
us  in  the  material  world,  of  greatness,  beauty  and  use,  is  the  result  of  the  com- 
bination of  atoms  united  by  the  law  of  affinity  or  attraction,  and  that  when- 
ever that  law  ceases  to  operate  at  any  point,  dissolution  and  death  ensues,  so 
also  precisely  the  same  law  holds  in  the  spiritual  world;  unless  each  separate 
soul  is  united  by  love  to  the  other  souls,  he  or  she  is  in  a  condition  of  death, 
out  of  harmony  with  and  against  the  spiritual  laws,  and  nothing  they  do  will 
succeed.   Without  love  we  can  attain  nothing! 

Another  point  stands  out  most  clearly  in  all  of  our  Lord's  conversations 
and  actions.  It  is  this — that  man  is  left  absolutely  free  to  do  as  he  wills,  the 
door  is  open  to  everyone  to  attain  the  greatest  blessings  and  gifts — each  can 
enter  if  he  chooses.  But  as  each  has  absolute  independence  in  this,  no  one  will 
force  him  to  do  or  not  to  do.  Our  Master  never  even  reproves  or  rebukes  any 
one.  He  simply  says:  "If  you  do  thus  and  so,  such  and  such  a  result  will 
follow;  if  you  do  not,  it  will  not,"  and  every  one  is  left  perfectly  free  to  do 
as  he  himself  chooses.  Or,  if  He  sees  any  one  making  mistakes  in  their 
thoughts  or  actions,  He  talks  lovingly  to  them,  and  will  tell  them  some  story 
or  parable  bearing  on  their  case,  without  saying  anything  directly  to  them,  or 
showing  that  it  refers  to  them;  if  they  are  in  earnest,  they  will  observe  His 
words  and  take  it  to  themselves,  and  correct  their  mistakes;  if  not,  they  must 
suffer  from  their  consequences,  for  as  man  sows  so  shall  the  reaping  be,  and 
no  effort  or  struggle  of  the  heart,  however  secret,  is  unseen  or  unknown,  but 
will  surely  bear  fruit  in  God's  time.  So  let  us  all  labor  to  be  accepted  of  our 
God,  with  hearts  full  of  joyful  confidence,  knowing  that  He  is  the  sure  Re- 
warder. 

"We  have  had  the  honor  of  meeting  with  many  of  the  holy  people  who 
have  suffered  for  the  Cause  in  a  way  we  know  little  of  in  America,  and  th* 


488 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


stories  of  whose  triumphant  steadfastness  and  patience  through  the  most  fiery 
trials  and  sufferings,  ought  surely  to  make  us  ashamed  of  our  feeble  efforts  and 
lukewarm  faith,  for  it  was  the  greatness  of  their  faith  and  love  that  alone 
enabled  them  to  endure.  I  have  no  room  in  this  letter  to  give  any  detailed 
histories  of  these  saints,  but  on  our  return  to  America  we  hope  to  bring  with  us 
many  such,  the  reading  of  which  will  surely  stir  us  up  to  greater  efforts  and 
enkindle  our  zeal.  There  are  women  here  who  have  seen  their  children  slowly 
starve  to  death  before  their  eyes,  and  have  nearly  been  killed  themselves;  men 
and  women  who  were  very  rich,  some  of  them  in  princely  positions,  and  who 
have  given  up  all  their  wealth  and  comforts  for  the  sake  of  the  Cause;  others 
whose  husbands  have  been  put  to  death  before  them;  men  who  have  been  shut 
up  for  years  in  damp  underground  cells  with  heavy  chains  around  their  necks, 
eating  into  their  flesh,  and  all  this  and  more  they  have  endured  with  great 
gladness  for  the  sake  of  the  love  of  their  God. 

Acca  itself  and  its  immediate  surroundings  is  a  shrine  full  of  the  most 
sacred  memories  the  heart  of  man  can  hallow.  There  is  the  great  prison,  in 
which  the  Blessed  Perfection  and  the  Holy  Household  were  confined,  and  from 
which  none  of  those  who  sent  them  there  ever  expected  to  see  them  emerge 
alive.  There  is  the  high  prison  wall  from  which  the  Cut  Branch  fell,  and  for 
the  sake  of  whose  accepted  sacrifice  the  City  Gate  of  Acca  was  first  opened  to 
the  pilgrims  who  had  traveled  for  months  to  get  there,  and  endured  all  sorts 
of  hardships  from  the  hope  of  beholding  the  Face  of  their  God.  There  is  the 
Rizwan,  the  garden  mentioned  in  prophecy,  with  the  two  rivers  running  on 
either  side  of  it,  and  in  which  Manifestation  used  to  sit;  there  is  the  hill,  now 
clad  in  red  and  white,  by  its  scarlet  memories  and  small  white  lilies,  on  the  top 
of  which  He  loved  to  sit  and  gaze  at  the  beautiful  view  spread  out  like  a  glorious 
panorama  on  every  side;  there  is  the  Tomb  of  the  Mother  of  our  Lord  and  of 
the  Cut  Branch  with  its  inscription,  "0  calm  soul,  return  to  thy  God  with  joy 
and  gladness,"  and  lastly  and  chiefest  the  Behja  itself,  and  the  Tomb  of  the 
Blessed  Perfection  rising  up  close  beside  it — fullest  of  all  Divine  memories, 
and  containing  the  Sacred  Garment  worn  by  the  Lord  of  the  Existence,  when, 
for  the  sake  of  His  eternal  love  of  His  creatures,  He  turned  His  footsteps  from 
the  invisible  to  the  visible  world,  and  veiled  His  eternal  splendor  in  the  body 
of  the  dust.  The  tomb  itself  is  a  building  containing  a  central  court  in  which 
is  planted  flowers  and  shrubs;  around  this  there  is  a  carpeted  passage  with  a 
large  carpeted  space  on  the  west  facing  the  entrance;  at  one  side  of  this  is  the 
room  with  the  locked  door,  hanging  in  front  of  which  is  a  beautiful  curtain, 
and  within  is  the  Sacred  Garment  itself. 

As  you  have  heard,  this  most  sacred  room  was  not  opened  to  pilgrims 
until  my  dear  husband  came  from  the  "wide  lands"  of  America,  and  then  from 
the  great  love  and  mercy  and  favors  showered  upon  him,  the  guarding  door 
was  thrown  open  and  he  was  allowed  to  enter,  and  afterwards  a  few  of  our 
favored  pilgrims  have  been  allowed  to  enter  also.  There  is  no  need  to  speak 
of  the  great  favors  that  have  been  shown  by  our  dear  Lord  to  our  beluved 
teacher,  who  has  labored  so  zealously  and  untiringly  to  give  the  knowledge 
of  their  God  to  all  those  seeking  Him.  This  fact  speaks  louder  than  words,  so 
I  will  only  say  that  time  will  reveal  this,  as  all  other  things,  and  that  he  is 
the  chief  head  in  America,  to  whom  we  can  look  for  spiritual  direction  and 
guidance,  and  that  the  greatest  gifts  and  blessings  are  promised  him. 

I  must  really  close  this  long  account,  which  I  send  with  the  hope  that 
the  time  is  not  very  far  distant  before  we  shall  all  be  able  to  meet  once  again, 
and  then  you  will  learn  of  many  things  that  are  not  possible  to  write,  owing  to 
lack  of  time  and  strength. 

In  the  meantime,  may  our  faith  and  love  be  increased  daily  with  a  most 
great  increase — may  El-Beha  look  upon  us  in  the  greatness  of  His  mercy  and 
love,  and  accept  our  unworthy  service,  and  put  within  our  hearts  such  a  fire  of 
love  to  Him  that  all  other  desires  and  wishes  may  be  entirely  consumed,  and 
may  the  fragrance  of  His  Garment  be  speedily  spread  through  all  lands. 

Inshallah!! 

Believe  me  to  be  ever  your  affectionate  friend  and  sister, 

MARION  KHEIRALLA. 


490  PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 

Is  it  not  amazing  that  in  this  country  where  the  Gospel  is  pro-] 
claimed  from  thousands  of  pulpits,  where  the  light  is  shining  witn 
unparalleled  brightness,  so  many  should  be  found  who  will  give  homJ 
age  to  a  Christ,  who  is  so  evidently  an  impostor?  liut  it  is  a  common! 
observation  that  persons,  willfully  blinding  themselves  toward  thel 
truth  as  it  is  in  Christ,  will  embrace  errors  which  even  human  reason! 
recognizes  as  absurdities. 

THE  KURDS. 

Kurdistan  is  a  geographical  name  applied  to  the  Kurdistan  moun- 
tains and  sometimes  to -the  whole  country  inhabited  by  the  Kurds.  The 
area  is  estimated  at  50,000  square  miles,  extending  to  Mt.  Ararat,  in 
Armenia,  on  the  north,  to  the  plains  of  the  Tigris  on  the  south,  to  the  city 
of  Harput,  Sivan,  on  the  west,  and  to  the  plains  of  Oroomiah  and  the  city 
of  Sakis  on  the  east.  Thus,  this  territory  is  partly  subject  to  the  Shah  of 
Persia  and  partly  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey.  The  boundary  line  is  a  point 
of  dispute,  although  in  A.  D.  1639  a  treaty  between  the  Shah  Sefavi  and 
one  of  the  Sultans  of  Turkey  established  the  frontier  line,  which  since 
has  served  as  a  nominal  line  between  the  two  empires.  On  the  terri- 
tory here  described  not  only  Kurds  reside,  but  also  Turks,  Armenians, 
Chaldeans,  Assyrians  and  Persians.  The  Kurds  are  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Carduchi,  with  whom  Xenophon  and  the  10,000  had  so  long  a 
struggle.  The  region  they  occupy  is  as  rugged  as  their  character.  They 
are  by  far  the  most  turbulent  of  the  subjects  of  the  Shah,  and  were  it 
not  for  the  beautiful  rugs  they  manufacture  in  their  rude  dwellings,  one 
would  be  at  a  loss  to  imagine  the  reason  for  their  existence.  Their 
origin  is  wrapped  in  obscurity;  they  seem  to  have  no  relationship  with 
any  other  race,  and  as  with  Cain,  their  hand  is  against  everyone  and 
everyone's  hand  against  them.  The  etymologist  who  places  little  value! 
on  his  life,  might  find  a  few  months  among  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan 
of  some  profit  to  science.  They  themselves  claim  that  they  are  descend- 
ants of  Esau.  They  speak  a  mixed  language,  collected  from  Persian, 
Syrian  and  Arabic  languages.  Their  language  is  called  Kurmanji,  and 
has  never  been  reduced  to  writing,  so  they  are  without  books  or  schools. 
If  any  writing  is  done,  it  is  done  in  the  Persian  or  Arabic  characters. 
They  number  about  5,000,000;  700,000  are  subjects  of  the  Shah  and  a 
few  to  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  but  practically  all  are  lawless  and  be- 
yond the  control  of  either  of  these  two  governments.  A  Kurd  is  very  de- 
cided and  independent  in  spirit.  He  would  rather  live  in  a  cave,  under 
a  projecting  rock,  and  be  unmolested,  than  to  dwell  in  a  palace  and  be 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


491 


subject  to  higher  authority.  Some  of  the  tribes  have  a  small  village  in 
the  mountains,  to  which  they  return  in  winter.  Their  houses  are  made 
of  stone  and  clay,  and  are  usually  under  projecting  rocks  or  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill.   The  roof  is  so  low  that  a  man  cannot  stand  erect. 

The  Kurds  very  seldom  cultivate  the  soil,  but  keep  herds  of  cattle 
and  horses  and  flocks  of  sheep,  and  travel  from  place  to  place,  wherever 
they  may  find  good  pasture  for  their  flock.  A  Kurd  goes  before  his 
sheep,  having  a  staff  in  his  hand,  and  on  his  shoulder  hangs  a  bag  in 


TWO  KURDISH  3IEN  AND  A  BOY. 


which  he  has  provisions  for  the  day. ,  He  gives  names  to  his  sheep,  and 
when  he  calls  a  certain  sheep  it  comes  to  him.  He  may  be  seen  sitting, 
singing  and  playing  his  flute,  his  fond  flock  gathered  around  about  him 
for  an  audience.  But  the  principal  occupation  is  robbery.  Many  may 
be  seen  asleep  during  the  day,  but  they  rise  at  sunset  and  start  on  their 
robbing  expeditions.  The  Kurd  has  a  spear  in  one  hand,  sword  at  nls 
side,  pistol  and  dagger  in  his  belt,  with  many  cartridges,  and  a  gun  in 


492 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  other  hand.  Dark  eyes,  and  a  turban  covering  much  of  his  forehead, 
makes  him  a  fearful  looking  fellow.  When  they  start  at  dusk  they  are 
ready  to  rob  and  kill;  by  the  next  day  at  9  o'clock,  they  return  with 
their  prey  of  flocks,  herds  and  valuable  goods,  and  then  rest  for  a  time. 

During  the  greater  part  of  summer  they  live  in  tents  in  the  cool 
places  on  the  mountain  slopes  and  in  the  valleys.  In  winter  they  dwell 
in  houses  built  under  the  ground  most  of  them  containing  only  one  room, 
with  one  or  two  small  holes  on  the  top  for  light.  This  one  apartment 
answers  the  purpose  of  bedroom,  parlor,  kitchen  and  stable.  In  daytime 
all  the  inmates  are  out,  but  towards  sunset  they  come  dropping  in,  one 
by  one,  at  least  a  score  of  them,  men,  women  and  children.  The  hens, 
however,  have  already  turned  in  in  advance  and  are  perched  in  a  corner 
for  the  night;  sheep,  oxen  and  horses  have  been  stalled,  each  in  its  well- 
known  place.  After  night  has  fairly  set  in,  coarse  stale  bread  and  sour 
milk  are  brought  in  for  supper.  Two  spoons  and  one  big  dish  is  all  the 
plate,  and  the  spoons  are  passed  to  each  in  turn — all  in  the  dark,  as  they 
have  no  lights.  It  is  now  bedtime,  and  one  after  the  other  finds  his  place 
under  the  same  quilt,  without  either  a  pillow  or  bed,  except  perhaps,  some 
hay  spread  on  the  floor.  In  a  few  minutes  all  are  fast  asleep,  and  soon 
the  heavy  breathing  and  snoring  of  men  and  cattle  is  mingled,  and  the 
effect  is  anything  but  pleasant  to  the  ear. 

The  children  are  very  pretty,  and  the  features  of  the  women,  who 
never  go  veiled,  distinguished  by  great  regularity,  large  eyes,  aquilene 
nose,  robust  figure,  deep  black  hair,  well  harmonizing  with  a  slightly 
brown  or  swarthy  complexion.  Unfortunately  they  are  too  often  dis- 
figured, like  their  Hindu  sisters,  by  the  gold  ring  passed  through  their 
nostrils.  Both  sexes  are  fond  of  finery,  bright-colored,  costly  robes, 
high  head  dresses,  enveloped  by  the  men  in  gorgeous  turbans.  The 
Kurd  completes  his  costume  by  an  arsenal  of  small-arms — revolvers, 
knives  and  yatagans— attached  to  the  girdle,  rifle  swung  to  a  shoulder- 
belt,  a  long  lance  decorated  with  ribbons  and  carried  in  the  hand.  But 
this  is  mere  parade,  most  of  such  encumbrances  being  dispensed  with  in 
actual  combat. 

Parents  teach  their  children  how  to  become  successful  thieves.  A 
father  will  give  his  son  of  6  or  7  years  of  age,  a  pistol,  dagger  and  shield 
and  then  play  robber  with  the  child,  showing  him  how  to  use  these 
deadly  instruments.  A  Kurd  once  told  the  writer  of  his  timid  son.  The 
child  was  afraid  to  steal.  The  father  wanted  to  make  him  a  successful 
thief  and  so  tried  the  following  plan:  The  first  night  he  sent  the  child 
to  steal  grapes  from  his  own  yard ;  the  second  night  corn  from  his  own 


RELlGlONS~OF";PEltSIA. 


493 


crib ;  the  third  night  grapes  from  a  stranger,  next  a  chicken,  then  a 
sheep,  then  to  enter  a  house,  and  so  on  until  the  youth  became  a  most 
daring  highway  robber.  Then  the  father  was  proud  of  his  son  and  told 
him  that  he  had  become  a  man  and  could  marry.  The  girls  of  these 
tribes  will  not  marry  a  man  until  his  reputation  as  a  successful  robber  is 
established.  They  wish  to  be  assured  that  they  will  not  starve  after 
marriage.  The  Kurds  are  divided  into  tribes,  each  tribe  having  a  chief. 
These  tribes  are  generally  enemies  with  one  another.  The  chief  of  a 
tribe  will  lead  his  men  against  another  tribe  and  kill  all  the  men  and  take 
all  the  flocks,  herds  and  all  other  property  as  booty.  But  they  do  not 
harm  the  women  or  children.  An  old  man  is  not  honored  by  a  tribe. 
They  say  he  can't  fight  nor  rob  and  is  good  for  nothing  but  to  feed  sheep. 
The  man  most  highly  honored  is  the  one  who  has  killed  the  most  men. 
When  a  man  is  killed  in  battle,  or  while  robbing,  he  is  honored 
at  the  funeral  by  the  singing  of  many  songs,  by  weeping  and 
lamentations,  but  not  many  tears  are  shed  when  one  dies  a  natural 
death.  The  Kurds  are  very  quick-tempered.  A  slight  offense  — :i1 
make  them  enemies  and  they  will  at  once  seek  revenge.  They  are 
expert  in  a  running  fight;  they  love  to  revile  an  enemy,  and  are  con- 
tinually trying  to  invent  new  and  more  severe  expressions  of  hatred.  It  is 
their  nature  to  quarrel  and  fight.  Brothers  often  become  angered  over  a 
small  matter  and  fight  to  the  death.  They  think  no  more  of  killing  a  man 
than  we  do  of  killing  a  chicken.  They  are  very  licentious,  especially 
those  living  in  towns  and  cities.  Husband  and  wife  are  not  loyal  to  each 
other,  and  this  is  frequently  the  cause  of  murder.  As  a  people  they  have 
no  foresight,  having  no  thought  for  the  morrow. 

The  Kurdish  religion  is  Islam  and  that  of  the  Sunni  sect.  They  are 
very  religious,  pray  five  times  a  day,  always  before  leaving  their  homes 
so  as  to  have  success  in  their  robbery.  Before  each  prayer  they  perform 
the  ablutions ;  when  a  man  is  praying  no  woman  must  touch  him  lest 
she  might  get  the  benefit  of  his  prayer,  as  women  have  no  soul,  and  if 
she  touch  him  she  would  get  his  soul  and  he  would  lose  it.  If  a  woman 
should  near  to  him  during  his  prayer  the  man  would  stop,  step  out  of  the 
circle  of  prayer  and  then  take  up  his  gun  and  shoot  the  woman, 
then  continue  his  prayer.  Their  women  wear  an  exceedingly  pic- 
turesque costume.  They  have  dark  complexions,  with  eyes  and  hair 
intensely  black.  Their  beauty  is  not  of  a  refined  type  but  by  a  mass  of 
paint  is  made  sufficiently  attractive  for  their  easily-pleased  husbands. 
Almost  all  of  the  work,  in  and  out  of  doors,  is  done  by  them.  Early  in 
the  morning  when  they  are  through  with  their  home  work  they  hasten  to 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA.  495 

field  to  attend  to  the  flocks  or  gather  fuel  for  use  in  winter.  In  the  even- 
ing they  come  in  with  large  burdens  on  their  backs,  which  appear  to  be 
quite  enough  for  two  donkeys  to  carry.  So  industrious  are  they  that 
they  frequently  spin  on  their  way  to  and  from  work,  singing  all  the  while 
apparently  as  happy  as  if  all  the  world  were  theirs.  The  difficulties  and 
ailments  of  womanhood  are  nothing  to  them.  A  woman  with  child  will 
go  out  among  the  rocks,  climbing  the  mountain  heights.  Her  time  of 
labor  is  at  hand,  but  she  does  not  cease  her  usual  toil.  In  the  evening 
a  woman  may  be  seen  coming  down  the  mountain  singing  with  a  heavy 
burden  of  fuel  on  her  back,  and  in  her  arms  the  child  to  which  she  has 
given  birth  during  the  day.  Even  this  the  men  do  not  appreciate  or  re- 
ward, they  will  not  hesitate,  when  it  is  raining,  to  drag  the  women  from 
the  tent  to  make  room  for  a  favorite  steed. 

Their  chief  priests  are  called  Sheikhs  and  are  honored  as  gods.  They 
kneel  before  a  chief  priest  and  kiss  his  hands,  clothes  and  shoes,  and  ask 
for  his  blessing.  To  penitent  ones  he  promises  that  he  will  ask  God 
to  forgive  their  sins.  He  has  absolute  power  over  laymen.  They  believe 
his  words  are  inspired  truth  and  obey  implicitly.  I  knew  of  one  Sheikh 
who  bathed  every  morning  in  a  spring  and  the  people  would  flock  to  this 
place  to  draw  of  the  water  to  drink,  in  which  he  had  washed  his  body. 
The  father  of  the  late  Sheikh  Obeidullah  assisted  the  Sultan  in  the  late 
Russian-Turkish  war,  commanded  more  than  100,000  Kurds  to  fight 
against  Russia.  He  told  them  not  to  be  afraid  of  the  big  cannons  that 
would  be  seen  when  they  met  the  Russians.  He  said,  "I  have,  by  the 
help  of  Allah,  bound  the  mouth  of  these  cannon  and  they  cannot  hurt 
you."  It  is  said  that  he  would  arise  every  morning  with  black  hands 
and  claim  they  had  been  blackened  by  the  gunpowder  of  these  cannons, 
and  that  he  had  been  in  battle  all  night  with  the  Russians  and  was  not 
harmed  at  all.  This  would  encourage  more  Kurds  to  go  into  battle,  and 
believing  this  statement,  they  marched  wildly  and  flew  into  the  faces  of 
these  big  guns  and  many  thousands  were  slain.  For  awhile  this  Sheikh 
had  an  Armenian  servant,  who  was  attending  to  the  horse  which  the 
Sheikh  himself  rode,  and  which  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  horses. 
.  One  morning  while  he  was  taking  care  of  the  horse,  he  kicked  him,  and 
drawing  his  dagger  he  thrust  it  right  through  the  horse;  soon  he  was 
brought  to  answer  for  this  and  every  one  was  anxious  to  shed  his  blood. 
The  servant  said,  "Allow  me  to  speak  a  word  before  you  take  my  life. 
How  long  will  you  be  hard  to  believe,  the  horse  being  in  front  of  the 
battle,  was  struck  by  the  enemy,  but  bravely  defended  the  Sheikh." 
This  pleased  the  Sheikh  immensely  and  he  gave  the  servant  many  gifts 


496 


and  robes,  and  said  to  the  soldiers,  ''Look  at  this  infidel,  how  he  testified 
for  me,  therefore  how  much  more  should  you  believe  me."  The  servant 
seeing  his  master  treat  the  multitude  so  foolishly,  succeeded  in  treating 
his  master  in  the  same  manner. 

These  wild  Kurds,  who  are  a  band  of  robbers,  have  no  other  or- 
ganization, being  simply  a  band  of  robbers.  Out  of  their  number  the 
Sultan  of  Turkey  created  the  so-called  Hamidieh  troops  in  1891.  This 


THE  SPIRITUAL  BEAD  OF  A LL  THE  KURDS,  sillilK  SADIK. 

was  an  application  of  the  same  principle  that  prompts  him  at  other  times 
to  throw  open  the  prison  doors  and  invite  the  convicts  to  rob  and  kill 
Christians.  The  Hamidieh  troops  will  go  and  attack  villages,  dishonor 
women  and  abduct  girls  of  tender  age.  I  assure  you  that  the  butchery 
of  Sassoum  was  but  a  drop  in  the  ocean  of  Christian  bloodshed,  occurring 
silently,  and  few  by  few  all  over  the  empire  year  after  year,  month  after 
month  and  day  after  day.  Innocent  women  and  children  have  been 
shot  down,  clubbed  to  death  in  their  houses  and  fields,  tortured  in  cells, 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


497 


or  left  to  exile  under  the  scorching  sun  of  Arabia.  The  piteous  cry  of 
starving  children,  the  groans  of  old  men  who  have  lived  to  see  what  can 
never  be  embodied  in  words,  the  violation  of  maidenhood,  nay,  of  tender 
childhood;  the  shrieks  of  mothers  made  childless  by  crimes,  compared 
with  which  murder  would  be  a  blessing;  the  screams  of  women,  scarcely 
human,  working  under  the  lash;  and  all  the  vain  voices  of  blood  and 
agony  that  die  away  in  that  desert  without  having  found  responsive 
echoes — all  this  cannot  possibly  fail  to  find  an  echo  in  heaven  sooner  or 
later! 

THE  YEZIDEES,  OR  DEVIL-WORSHIPERS. 

Their  chief  object  of  faith  and  worship  is  the  devil.  The  world,  they 
believe,  belongs  to  him.  He  is  "the  prince  of  the  world,"  and  as  such, 
should  be  honored  and  worshiped.  What  Christ  is  to  the  Christians, 
Satan  is  to  these  people.  They  give  alms  to  him  and  offer  sacrifices  in  his 
name.  They  trust  in  him  as  the  Christians  trust  in  Christ,  and  believe 
that  he  is  to  be  their  future  mediator,  and  savior  of  the  world.  The 
rooster  is  regarded  by  these  people  as  a  very  saqred  fowl,  as  he  is  sup- 
posed to  exactly  represent  the  form  of  his  satanic  majesty.  In  the  temple, 
they  keep  a  golden  image  of  a  rooster,  which  they  worship.  The  priests 
are  an  uneducated  class  of  people,  not  even  able  to  read. 

Their  holy  book  is  El  Jilweh,  i.  e.,  "The  Revelation,"  which  was 
written  by  Sheikh  Aadi  in  Arabic.  The  original  is  the  only  copy  in  ex- 
istence, which  is  guarded  at  Sheikh  Aadi's  tomb  with  great  care.  They 
claim  it  is  a  mystery;  that  no  one  will  be  able  to  understand  it  until 
the  devil  is  converted.  Their  priestly  office  consists  in  taking  care  of 
this  golden  image.  It  is,  however  not  kept  constantly  in  one  place. 
Some  society  will  offer  a  certain  sum  of  money  for  the  privilege  of  keep- 
ing it  with  them  for  a  stated  time.  After  a  society  has  secured  the  image, 
it  is  wrapped  in  a  silk  napkin  and  placed  in  a  very  nice  basket,  overlaid 
with  gold,  and  thus  carried  through  the  different  villages,  always  ac- 
companied by  one  priest,  no  other  person  being  allowed  to  touch  it.  We 
will  suppose  that  they  arrive  at  some  village.  Immediately  the  image 
is  set  up  on  some  high  place,  the  people  come  together,  bow  their  heads 
and  worship,  while  the  priest  bestows  blessings  upon  them.  After  this, 
a  napkin  is  spread  at  the  feet  of  the  image,  and  upon  this  the  people 
place  their  gifts.  Much  money  is  collected  in  this  way.  A  peculiar  super- 
stition exists  among  them.  The  ground  is  regarded  as  most  sacred,  for  it 
is  believed  to  be  the  devil's  face,  and  spitting  on  the  ground  is  regarded 


498 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


as  so  great  a  crime  that  the  penalty  is  death.  They  are  also  very  careful 
not  to  speak  Satan's  name. 

They  are  struck  with  horror  when  they  hear  the  archangel's  name 
blasphemed  by  Moslem  or  Christian,  and  the  sentence  of  death  is  said  to 
be  pronounced  against  those  amongst  them  who  take  the  name  of 
"Satan."  Those  who  hear  it  are  bound  to  kill,  first  the  blasphemer,  then 
themselves.  They  scrupulously  comply  with  the  orders  of  their  priests, 
and  many  make  the  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  Sheikh  Aadi,  on  the 
route  to  Amadiah,  north  of  Mossul.  Their  pope,  or  Sheikh  Khan,  re- 
sides at  Baadli ;  but  the  sanctuary  is  in  the  village  of  Lalest,  where  lived 
a  prophet,  the  "Mohammed"  of  the  Yezidi.  Here  are  performed  the  great 
ceremonies,  and  here  the  holy  effigy  of  the  Melek-Taus  is  exposed  to  the 
venerations  of  the  faithful. 

They  cannot  even  speak  of  Satan,  nor  hear  his  name  mentioned. 
The  people  endeavor  to  trick  them,  for  when  these  poor  Yezidees  come 
to  sell  their  eggs,  butter  and  goods,  the  purchasers  contrive,  first  to  get 
their  articles  in  their  possession  and  then  begin  uttering  a  thousand 


THREE  SYRIANS  OF  THE  KURDISTAN  MOUNTAINS 


RELIGIONS  OP  PERSIA. 


499 


foolish  expressions  against  Satan,  with  a  view  to  lower  the  price,  upon 
which  the  Yezidees  are  content  to  leave  their  goods  at  a  loss  rather  than 
to  be  the  witnesses  of  such  contemptuous  language  about  the  devil.  They 
will  not  pour  any  hot  water  on  the  ground  for  fear  of  scalding  the  little 
devils. 

The  social  customs  of  these  people  are  peculiar  to  themselves.  Men 
and  women  have  more  freedom  of  association  in  their  great  feasts,  women 
are  permitted  to  dance  and  sing  with  men.  The  laws  allow  every  man  to 
marry  not  more  than  six  wives;  the  girl  has  no  freedom  to  chose  her 
husband.  She  is  virtually  sold  by  the  parents  like  cattle  or  land.  If 
any  girl  does  not  prefer  to  get  married  she  can  remain  single  at  her 
father's  home  by  paying  him  a  sum  of  money  which  she  must  earn  by 
hard  labor.  Women  are  treated  almost  like  animals,  without  any  rights 
or  respect.  Their  idea  of  immortality  is  very  degrading.  They  believe 
in  the  transmigration  of  souls.  Altogether  they  represent  a  very  dark 
picture. 

Circumcision  is  a  religious  rite,  but  is  not  rigidly  enforced.  Once  in 
every  forty  or  fifty  years  a  priests  visits  the  people  and  circumcises  all 
that  are  willing.  The  majority,  however,  are  not  circumcised.  They 
consider  all  nations  their  enemies.  The  Kurdish  people  are  their 
greatest  enemies,  and  from  these  they  steal  and  do  not  hesitate  to 
kill  them.    They  show  no  mercy,  but  are  cruel  and  bloodthirsty. 

Yet  they  are  connected  with  the  Musselman  world  by  their  very 
title  of  Yezidee,  derived  from  the  Yezid,  *  the  detested  Caliph,  grandson 
of  the  prophet,  and  murderer  of  Husain.  Lastly,  the  Kurds  confound 
them  with  the  Christian  sects  of  the  Lowlands,  attributing  to  all  alike 
every  conceivable  abomination. 

Complete  reservation  of  their  religious  precepts  from  strangers  is 
one  of  the  most  binding  obligations.  To  make  secrecy  more  effective, 
the  founder  of  the  sect,  Sheikh  Aadi,  decreed  that  only  a  single  person 
at  a  time  should  be  initiated  into  the  mysteries,  and  designated  as  the  per- 
son to  whom  the  secret  should  be  confined,  the  eldest  heir  of  the  tribe 
of  Hasan  el  Bassri.  Previous  to  his  initiation,  this  person  is  to  be 
instructed  in  written  Arabic,  knowledge  of  whch  is  forbidden  to  all  others 
of  the  race  under  penalty  of  death  and  loss  of  eternal  salvation.  The 
instruction  takes  place  in  a  room  from  which  all  other  persons  are  ex- 


*  Yezide,  the  son  of  Muarviyah,  the  second  Khalifah  of  the  house  of  Umai- 
yah  (Omiyah),  who  reigned  from  A.  D.  679  to  A.  D.  683  (A.  H.  60-63).  He  is  cele- 
brated in  Moslem  history  as  the  opponent  of  Al-Husain. 


500 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


eluded.  The  text-book  is  the  Koran,  the  only  book  obtainable  in  the 
country;  but  as  this  book  contains  many  unflattering  mentions  of  the 
devil,  whose  name  no  Yezdidee  must  hear  or  pronounce  or  read,  a 
friendly  Christian  is  employed  to  procure  the  copy  to  be  used  and  care- 
fully cover  all  places  where  the  devil  is  named  with  wax.  If  now,  by 
any  accident  the  devil's  name  should  be  seen  on  the  page  during  the 
studies,  the  book  is  shut  at  once,  with  an  invocation,  and  thrown  into 
the  fire,  and  another  one  is  procured.  When  the  course  of  instruction 
is  completed,  the  Koran  is  burned  at  once,  because  it  is  a  wicked, 
blasphemous  book,  which  should  not  be  tolerated  in  the  house  of  a 
Yezidee  except  under  the  sternest  necessity. 

By  a  most  extraordinary  accident  the  author  obtained  the 
sacred  book  of  the  Yezidees,  whose  place  of  concealment  is  known 
only  to  the  single  initiated,  and  was  able  to  keep  it  long  enough  to 
copy  it. 

They  belong  to  the  Kurdish  race  and  claim  a  population  of  three 
million  souls.  They  are  distributed  in  villages,  residence  in  cities  being 
forbidden,  a  few  living  in  the  provinces  of  Damascus,  Aleppo  and  Diar- 
bekir,  a  greater  number  in  the  province  of  Mosul  and  the  Russian 
district  of  Erivan  and  northwestern  part  of  Persia.  They  are  all  subject, 
body  and  soul,  to  a  chief,  who  must  be  of  the  family  of  the  Sheikh  Aadi, 
and  who  resides  at  Baadri,  in  the  district  of  Shechan.  He  receives  a 
considerable  tribute  from  his  people  and  has  in  turn  to  keep  up  the 
temple  and  grave  of  Sheikh  Aadi.  The  present  chief  is  Myrza  Bey,  a 
son  of  Hussein  Bey,  who  a  few  years  ago  died  of  drunkenness.  He  was 
the  third  of  eight  brothers,  and  had  no  right  to  the  succession,  but  he 
formed  a  party  and  advanced  claims.  In  the  contest  which  followed, 
his  elder  brothers  fell  by  his  hand,  and  he  thus  made  himself  master  of  the 
situation.  He  then  managed  to  make  his  peace  with  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment, and  was  recognized  by  it.  The  Myr,  as  the  chief  is  called,  has  su- 
preme control  of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Yezidees.  To  deny  a  wish 
expressed  by  him  is  to  incur  very  unpleasant  results  in  this  world,  and 
also  bring  upon  one's  self  the  consequences  of  having  offended  the 
bodily  descendant  and  representative  on  earth  of  the  great  prophet, 
Sheikh  Aadi.  All  contests  are  settled  at  his  tribunal,  not  by  any  fixed 
law,  but  according  to  his  will  and  passing  mood.  Blood  shedding  is 
atoned  for  by  pecuniary  indemnity;  adulterous  women  are  executed  by 
their  husbands  without  further  proceedings.  The  Turkish  government 
it  satisfied  to  receive  its  tribute,  and  lets  the  internal  affairs  of  the  peo- 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


501 


pie  alone.  It  deals  with  the  Myr,  to  a  certain  extent,  as  a  state  within  a 
state.  The  Yezidees  will  not  serve  in  the  Turkish  army,  because  their 
religion  forbids  them  to  mingle  with  the  hated  Musselmans,  but  escape 
by  paying  a  good  round  commutation  fee  yearly.  The  people  are  at  the 
lowest  stage  of  civilization,  with  no  hope  of  rising  so  long  as  Sheikh 
Aadi's  rules  are  in  force.  Under  the  influence  of  these  convictions  and 
of  the  prejudices  of  their  neighbors  against  them,  they  have  become  a 
sinister,  malicious,  treacherous  people.  The  rite  of  hospitality,  so  sacred 
among  the  Bedouins,  is  unknown  to  them.  No  one  can  feel  safe  among 
them.  They  attach  no  value  to  human  life.  To  these  ordinary  dangers  are 
added  those  arising  from  the  embarrassing  etiquette  of  conversational  in- 
tercourse with  them ;  for  if  any  one  inadvertently  lets  escape  the  word 
devil,  Satan,  or  anything  sounding  like  it,  he  commits  a  mortal  offense ; 
and  to  cut  off  his  head  is  a  god-pleasing  act,  and  a  sacred  duty  of  the 
Yezidee,  the  fulfillment  of  which  will  insure  him  a  place  in  paradise.  Sev- 
eral letters  are  in  like  manner  wholly  banished  from  the  language, 
chiefly  those  which  contain  the  sound  of  a  "shun;"  also  the  Arabic 
word  nallet,  "Thou  art  damned,"  which"  was  spoken  by  God  to  the  fallen 
angel  when  He  pitched  him  into  hell.  Therefore  all  words  containing 
similar  sounds  are  set  aside,  and  other  combinations  not  belonging  to 
any  language  are  used  in  their  stead.  The  Yezidees  in  the  level  regions 
of  Shedran  are  quiet  farmers  and  stock  raisers,  paying  their  tribute  to 
the  Turkish  government  without  remonstrance ;  but  on  the  Jebel  Sindiia 
they  are  wild  and  indomitable,  addicted  to  highway  robbery,  in  constant 
antagonism  with  the  goverment,  and  often  compelling  the  officers  to  use 
force  in  the  collection  of  the  taxes. 

The  great  national  sanctuary  of  the  Yezidees  is  "Sheikh  Aadi,"  the 
supposed  burial  place  of  the  founder  and  prophet  of  the  religion.  It  was 
formerly  a  Chaldaic  cloister,  called  Lalish,  but  was  captured  by  adher- 
ents of  Sheikh  Aadi,  about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  It  is  a 
beautiful  valley,  shaded  with  a  rich  vegetation,  through  which  flows  the 
sacred  brook,  Semsen,  coming  down  underground  from  Jerusalem,  and 
here  leaping  from  terrace  to  terrace.  Every  Yezidee  is  baptized  and  has 
his  winding-sheet  dipped  into  its  holy  waters,  in  order  that  he  may  be 
more  sure  of  entering  the  paradise  which  Sheikh  Aadi  has  promised  him. 
Here  resides  the  great  sheikh,  who  is  next  to  the  Myr,  and  whose  bless- 
ing is  good  for  the  healing  of  diseases  and  for  the  assurance  of  a  large 
posterity.   The  next  place  in  the  hierarchy  is  held  by  Mullah  Haidar,  a 


502 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


descendant  of  the  learned  Hassan  el  Bassri,  and  keeper  of  the  book 
with  the  seven  seals. 

In  one  of  the  apartments  of  the  temple  are  preserved  the  six  sacred 
brazen  images.  They  are  roughly  cast  figures,  in  the  shape  of  plumply 
developed  cocks,  one  of  which  weighs  more  than  seven  hundred  pounds, 
while  the  others  are  smaller.  They  are  a  gift  from  the  dying  prophet. 
There  were  originally  seven  of  them,  but  one  has  been  unaccountably 
lost.  The  holy  book  was  also  concealed  for  a  time  in  Sheikh  Aadi.  This 
book  was  probably  written  in  fairly  good  Arabic,  at  about  the  end  of  the 
tenth  century,  by  Hassan  el  Bassri,  Sheikh  Aadi's  disciple.  It  has  existed 
since  then  in  only  a  single  copy,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which 


the  first  contains  the  history  of  the  creation,  in  occasional  agreement 
with  the  Biblical  narrative ;  and  some  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Yezi- 
dees  and  their  subsequent  fortunes,  not  always  accurate,  and  containing 
many  anachronisms.  The  second  part— which  is  evidently  to  a  consider- 
able extent  of  later  origin,  for  it  shows  various  handwritings — explains 
the  doctrines,  precepts  and  rites.  The  occurrence  of  Chaldaic  words  in- 
dicates that  some  Christian  or  ex-Christian  priest  or  monk  had  some- 
thing to  do  with  its  construction.  According  to  this  curious  book,  dark- 
ness prevailed  before  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  He  became 
tired  of  hovering  over  the  water,  and  made  a  parrot,  with  which  he 


A  DEVIL  WORSHIPER  SHEIK. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


503 


amused  himself  for  forty  years.  Then  he  became  angry  with  the  bird 
and  trampled  it  to  death.  The  mountains  and  valleys  arose  out  of  its 
plumage,  and  the  sky  from  its  breath.  God  then  went  up,  made  the  dry 
sky,  and  hung  it  to  a  hair  of  his  head.  In  the  same  way  hell  was  made. 
God  then  created  six  other  gods  out  of  his  own  essence,  in  the  same  way 
that  a  fire  divides  itself  into  several  flames.  The  six  gods  are  the  sun, 
the  moon,  morning  and  evening  twilight,  the  morning  star,  the  other 
stars,  and  the  seven  planets.  Each  of  them  made  himself  a  mare,  with 
which  to  travel  over  the  sky.  The  gods  talk  with  one  another  in  Kurd- 
ish, the  speech  of  paradise,  the  language  of  languages.  The  seven  gods 
together  created  the  angels.  It  came  to  pass  that  the  angel  created  by  the 
first  god  rose  against  his  lord,  and  was  cast  into  hell  for  it.  He  at  once 
set  up  a  great  lamentation,  with  confessions  of  his  faults,  and  wept  con- 
tinually for  seven  thousand  years,  filling  seven  great  earthen  jars  with  his 
tears,  till  at  last  the  all-good  and  merciful  god  had  pity  on  him,  and  took 
him  again  into  paradise.  This  angel  afterward  so  excelled  the  others  in 
doing  good  that  God  loved  him  more  than  all  of  them.  The  other  angels 
once  in  a  quarrel  taunted  him  with  his  single  sin  and  punish- 
ment. God  overhearing  this  became  very  angry  and  said :  "Whoever 
of  you  offends  this  little  one  with  another  word  shall  be  accursed ;  whom 
god  hath  pardoned  the  creature  shall  not  make  ashamed."  He  raised  this 
angel  to  be  first  and  master  of  all,  called  him  Melek-Taus,  and  united 
him  with  his  own  person  and  existence,  as  two  flames  become  one.  The 
seven  jars  filled  with  the  tears  which  he  wept  in  hell  are  to  be  preserved 
till  Sheikh  Aadi  shall  return  after  having  completed  his  mission  on  the 
earth,  to  be  used  in  extinguishing  the  fires  of  hell.  The  seventh  god 
created  the  various  species  of  animals,  gradually,  one  out  of  the  other, 
and  finally  Adam  and  Eve.  But  their  posterity  could  not  maintain  them- 
selves. After  ten  thousand  years  the  earth  destroyed  them  all,  and  then 
remained  desolate  for  ten  thousand  years  longer.  Only  the  genii  sur- 
vived. The  same  thing  happened  five  times  again,  each  god  creating  a 
human  pair  in  his  turn.  Finally  the  first  god.  with  Melek-Taus,  created 
the  last  first  pair,  Eve  a  considerable  time  after  Adam,  and  not  till  after 
he  had  been  expelled  from  paradise.  Adam  lived  in  paradise,  and  was 
allowed  to  eat  of  all  the  fruits  growing  there  except  of  wheat. 

In  the  course  of  time  Melek-Taus  said  to  God :  "You  have  created 
Adam  to  people  the  earth ;  but  he  still  lives  in  paradise,  while  the  earth 
is  uninhabited."  God  said:  "You  are  right;  take  counsel  about  it." 
Melek-Taus  went  to  Adam  and  moved  him  to  eat  of  the  forbidden  fruit, 


504 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


upon  which  his  expulsion  from  paradise  followed  as  punishment.  God 
then  determined  to  give  Adam,  who  was  still  alone,  a  companion,  and 
made  Eve  from  his  ribs,  who  bore  him  seventy-two  pairs  of  twins.  The 
Yezidees  are  not,  however,  descended  from  this  race,  but  from  a  son 
miraculously  given  by  God  to  Adam,  named  Shehid-ibu-Giarr  and  a 
houri  from  paradise.  Their  posterity,  the  Yezidees,  do  not  mingle  with 
the  children  of  Adam  and  Eve.  Shehid's  eldest  son  was  Yezdani,  from 
whom,  through  his  Son,  Noah,  also  called  Melik  Salim,  the  blessing 
passed  to  his  grandson,  Marge  Meran,  of  the  Yezidee  race.  The  Mussel- 
mans  are  descended  from  Ham,  who  having  detected  his  mother  in  an 
intrigue,  mocked  her  to  his  father.  The  children  of  Eve  and  of  Ham 
hate  the  children  of  Yezdani,  because  they  are  the  chosen  people  of 
Melek-Taus,  who  induced  their  father  to  eat  the  forbidden  fruit,  thereby 
forfeiting  paradise. 

The  children  of  Eve  laughed  at  Noah  while  he  was  building  the 
arch  in  anticipation  of  the  flood.  When  the  ark  struck  on  Mount  Sin- 
diar,  it  sprung  a  leak.  The  snake  swelled  itself  up  and  stopped  the  hole 
with  its  tail ;  but  after  the  flood,  the  snakes  increased  so  fast  as  to  do 
much  harm  to  men.  Noah  was  so  vexed  at  this  that  he  seized  one  of 
them  and  threw  it  into  the  fire.    From  its  ashes  arose  fleas. 

The  history  is  continued,  with  a  mixture  of  historical  incidents  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  accounts,  the  life  and  sufferings  of  Christ, 
stories  of  the  Koran,  and  secular  history.  Christ,  after  suffering,  but 
not  actually  dying,  upon  the  cross,  was  taken  by  Melek-Taus  into 
heaven,  where,  with  him  and  God,  he  forms  the  trinity. 

Yezid,  who  made  war  upon  his  father,  the  Caliph  Moanzeh,  al- 
though he  lived  in  reality  a  Musselman,  but  unorthodox,  is  fabled  in 
these  books  to  have  been  a  great  champion  of  the  religion  of  Sheikh  Aadi, 
and  to  have  possessed  miraculous  powers.  He  is  said  to  have  ordered  all 
the  books  of  Islam  to  be  brought  together  and  cast  into  the  sea,  and  to 
have  pronounced  a  curse  of  body  and  soul  against  everyone,  except  those 
to  whom  special  license  might  be  given,  who  shall  thereafter  read 
or  write  a  letter  of  the  Arabic  language.  Having  overcome  Hussine 
and  Hassan,  the  sons  of  Ali,  Yezid  lived  three  hundred  years  at  Damas- 
cus and  then  ascended  to  heaven.  The  Mohammedans  obtaining  posses- 
sion of  Damascus  again,  and  beginning  to  oppress  the  faithful,  Yezid 
was  set  down  to  earth  to  protect  them.  This  time  he  took  the  name  of 
Sheikh  Aadi.  He  again  performed  many  wonderful  works  and  effected 
some  marvelous  conversions,  receiving  the  adhesion,  among  others,  of 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


505 


the  Caliph  and  of  Hassan  el  Bassri,  and  drove  the  Christian  monks  from 
Lalish,  where  he  established  the  seat  of  his  religion.  Jews,  Christians 
and  Mohammedans,  says  the  book  of  Sheikh  Aadi,  "curse  and  blaspheme 
in  the  way  that  they  are  led  by  their  books.  They  are  blind  and  hard- 
ened, and  do  not  know  that  God  comes  down  from  heaven  every  thou- 
sand years  and  punishes  blasphemers.  They  habitually  speak  of  Satan, 
meaning  thereby  our  holy  Melek-Taus,  who  is  one  with  God.  This 
wicked  name  was  invented  by  infamous  and  accursed  people  to  shame 
our  august  protector.  It  is  no  less  sinful  to  let  the  words  of  similar 
meaning  or  sound  pass  over  the  lips,  such  as  Kaitan  (a  sting),  shat  (the 
Tigris),  shed  (to  bind),  nal  (horseshoe),  and  lal  (a  ruby).  Whoever  speaks 
one  of  these  words  is  guilty  of  the  most  heinous  blasphemy  and  deserves 
to  die,  and  his  soul  shall  be  embodied  in  a  mangy  dog  or  beast  of  bur- 
den. Therefore,  God  forbids  the  reading  of  books,  because  such  words 
are  contained  in  them.  Neither  the  Bible  nor  the  Koran  originally  had 
these  blasphemous  passages,  but  they  were  added  by  evil-doers.  It  is 
also  a  great  sin  to  eat  salad,  because  its  name  (in  Arabic)  sounds  like 
one  of  the  titles  of  our  saints." 

The  priestly  order  is  hereditary  in  the  lines  ordained  by  God,  and 
includes,  after  the  Myr,  or  high-priest,  the  Apriars.  who  reside  at  Sheikh 
Aadi,  and  dispcse  of  their  blessings  for  good  money;  the  Meshaich,  who, 
without  having  any  particular  ecclesiastic  functions,  pray  for  the  healing 
of  diseases  and  break  the  bread  at  marriage  ceremonies;  the  Kovecheck, 
who  dance  at  the  festivals  and  on  other  occasions ;  the  Kavalin,  who  con- 
stitute the  guard  of  honor  to  the  seven  holy  images,  make  music  and 
attend  to  the  collections ;  and  the  Fakirs,  who  are  organized  as  begging- 
monks,  and  live  wholly  on  alms.  All  these  priests  wear  their  beard  and 
hair  uncut,  and  can  marry  only  within  their  class. 

The  Sanjak,  or  Holy  Standard  of  the  Yezidees,  is  asserted  to  have 
come  down  from  King  Solomon,  having  passed  from  him  to  the  kings 
of  their  nation,  and  having  been  committed  by  Yezid  to  the  Kavalin 
to  care  for.  As  among  them,  it  is  consigned  to  the  one  who  will  bid 
highest  for  the  privileges  and  blessings  attendant  upon  having  it  in 
possession.  On  stated  occasions  the  Sanjak  is  carried  around  and  ex- 
hibited to  the  people.  The  priest  dips  the  standard  into  the  holy  water  and, 
taking  some  of  the  consecrated  earth  of  Sheikh  Aadi,  makes  of  it  pills  as 
large  as  a  hazel-nut,  which  he  keeps  as  blessed  gifts  for  the  faithful. 
Whoever  swallows  one  of  these  pills  will  be  kept  by  the  grace  of  Melek- 
Taus  sound  in  mind  and  body  for  a  whole  year.  The  standard,  pre- 
ceded by  a  herald  to  announce  its  coming,  is  taken  to  the  villages  as  they 


506 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


are  designated  by  the  Myr.  The  privilege  of  entertaining  it  having  been 
sold  at  auction,  the  successful  bidder  makes  a  feast  in  its  honor,  which 
is  attended  by  the  priests  in  their  order,  and  by  the  people,  and,  finally, 
the  women  and  children.  Offerings  are  brought  and  laid  down,  and  at 
sunset  all  the  faithful  march  seven  times  around  the  standard  in  honor 
of  the  seven  gods,  beating  their  breasts  and  asking  pardon  for  their  sins. 
When  all  the  villages  in  the  circuit  have  been  visited,  the  standard  and 
the  collected  offerings  are  brought  to  the  temple. 

Sheikh  Aadi  is  the  true  Jerusalem,  or  center  of  the  faith.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  autumn  the  Myr  and  the  Meshaich  meet  there  in  a  cave 
and  inquire  of  Melek,  who  appears  to  them,  whether  a  festival  will  be 
agreeable  to  him.  If  the  answer  is  favorable,  the  report  is  sent  out,  and 
in  the  course  of  twenty-three  days  thousands  of  Yezidees.  with  their 
wives  and  children,  will  have  collected  at  Sheikh  Aadi,  bringing  with 
them  provision  of  a  peculiar  cake,  for  no  kind  of  food  must  be  prepared 
there  during  the  pilgrimage.  On  the  twenty-third  day,  the  great  Sheikh 
comes  out  from  the  cave,  takes  his  seat  upon  a  stone,  and  salutes  the 
people.  Every  person,  thirty  years  of  age  and  over,  must  bring  an 
offering  from  his  live  stock,  according  to  his  means.  The  Meshaich 
now  come  out  of  the  cave  and  join  the  Emir  on  a  high  tribune,  where, 
with  the  priests  of  the  other  orders,  they  form  the  council  of  the  forty. 
An  ox  is  stewed  in  a  big  kettle  from  morning  till  sundown,  when  at  the 
call  of  the  Emir  a  number  of  young  men  come  up,  and,  plunging  their 
bared  arms  into  the  hot  mess,  accompanied  by  ceremonial  music,  pull 
out  the  pieces  of  meat  and  distribute  them  among  the  Emir  and  the  coun- 
cil. The  skin  and  flesh  of  the  young  men's  arms  may  peel  off  to  the 
bone,  but  those  of  them  who  die  are  at  once  enrolled  among  the  saints ; 
and  in  their  honor  the  hunters  of  Sindiar  and  Chartic  climb  to  the  top  of 
the  mountain  and  loudly  clash  their  shields  together,  or,  more  recently, 
fire  volleys  of  musketry.  This  ceremony  is  called  Kabaah.  Every  one  of 
the  attendant  faithful  receives  a  share  of  the  broth,  making  an  offering 
equivalent  to  about  a  six  pence  in  return.  After  three  days  of  the  fes- 
tival, the  faithful  are  all  baptized  in  the  waters  of  the  holy  Semsen — a 
stream  which  issues  from  a  cave  into  a  broad,  stone-lined  basin — and 
after  them  the  women  and  girls  receive  a  dip.  The  water  for  drinking  is 
taken  from  a  pond,  into  which  the  water  flows  from  out  of  this  basin. 
None  can  be  drawn  from  the  upper  part  of  the  source.  Three  of  the 
holy  images  are  ceremonially  dipped  in  the  brook,  carefully  dressed,  and 
arranged  around  the  Sanjak ;  each  of  the  faithful  takes  a  little  of  the 
sacred  earth  and  presents  his  offering,  and  the  festival  is  ended. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


507 


The  religious  ceremony  of  marriage  consists  in  the  couple  going 
before  the  Sheikh  and  eating  a  piece  of  bread  which  he  has  broken  in 
two.  A  feast  is  given  afterward,  at  which  the  attendants  contribute  to- 
ward a  gift  to  the  Myr,  in  commutation  of  his  sovereign  rights.  Wed- 
dings are  not  celebrated  in  April,  or  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays.  The 
relatives  of  a  widow  have  a  right  to  give  her  in  marriage,  whether  she 
be  willing  or  not,  to  the  sixth  time,  after  which  she  is  at  liberty;  but,  if 
she  will  pay  the  relatives  as  much  as  the  new  suitor  offers,  she  discharges 
the  account,  and  they  have  no  further  control  over  her.  The  marriage 
bond  is  dissoluble  by  death,  by  removal,  by  putting  the  wife  away  on 
account  of  transgression,  and,  without  cause,  after  eighty  years  of  it. 


THE  DEVIL  WORSHIPER  PRIEST  KAVALIN. 

The  priests  claim  the  power  to  heal  diseases  through  the  inter- 
position of  the  saints,  and  by  the  water  of  the  brook  Semsen.  and  the 
earth  of  Sheikh  Aadi.  They  say  that  Rejel-el-Senne  occasionally  sends  his 
plague-soldiers  to  vex  men;  when  they  repent  of  their  sins  and  confess 
them,  the  saints  intervene  to  vanquish  the  pest-soldiers  and  drive  them 
away. 

The  souls  of  the  deceased  believers  are  supposed  to  go  into  para- 
dise to  dwell  with  the  seven  gods,  Melek-Taus,  and  the  saints.  Sheikh 
Aadi  is  the  doorkeeper  there.  The  souls  of  unbelievers  and  of  sinful 
Yezidees  go  into  the  bodies  of  asses,  mules,  and  dogs.  Upon  the  death 


soa 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


of  a  Yezidee,  his  mouth  is  at  once  filled  with  the  holy  earth  of  Sheik  « 
Aadi.   The  body  is  buried  under  the  direction  of  a  sheikh  and  the  kaM  j 
alin.    The  body  having  been  laid  in  the  grave,  facing  the  East,  som:  ja 
sheep's  dung  is  scattered  over  it,  and  the  grave  is  filled  up  with  earth  ic 
The  women  mourn,  sing  dirges,  beat  their  breasts,  and  tear  their  hai(  ji 
for  three  days ;  and,  if  a  traveler  comes  along,  he  is  entertained  for  th  \ 
salvation  of  the  soul  of  the  deceased.    The  mourners  and  their  friend 
afterward  meet  in  the  house  of  the  deceased,  where  the  Kovechek  danc 
and  sing  to  Melek-Taus  till  they  look  him  in  the  face,  when  they  ar 
seized  with  convulsions,  and  fall  senseless  to  the  ground.   This  is  a  sig 
that  the  soul  of  the  deceased  has  entered  paradise.   The  whole  winds  u 
with  a  funeral  feast. 

If  a  man  has  an  evil-disposed  son,  he  secretly  buries  his  wealth,  s< 
that  it  shall  not  be  wasted  after  his  death  and  marks  the  spot  with  som 
sign.  When  he  is  born  again,  to  lead  a  new  life,  as  his  religion  teache 
him  is  to  be  the  case,  he  will  go  and  recover  his  treasure. 

New  Year's  day  is  a  great  festival,  and  is  always  observed  on  th 
first  Wednesday  after  the  vernal  equinox.    On  this  day,  God  collects  h 
paradise  all  the  saints  and  their  relatives,  and  sells  the  world's  comin< 
year  at  auction.    The  highest  bidder  is  made  Rejel-el-Senne.  the  rulei 
of  the  year,  and  has  the  direction  of  men's  fates,  according  to  his  will 
and  the  distribution  of  plenty  and  happiness,  want  and  disease.    On  th» 
morning  of  the  previous  day  the  Kockeh  calls  from  his  house,  implorim 
from  Melek-Taus  blessing  upon  all  who  are  within  hearing  of  his  voice 
The  young  people  then  go  to  the  mountains  and  woods  to  gather  rer 
shkek  flowers  with  which  to  adorn  the  doors  of  their  houses;  for  nc 
house  not  thus  ornamented  can  be  secure  from  the  afflictions  of  the  year 
The  legend  of  Sheikh  Aadi's  call  to  be  a  prophet  relates  that,  as  th< 
holy  man  was  riding  over  the  fields  one  moonlight  night,  in  his  twen 
tieth  year,  there  suddenly  appeared  rising  from  the  ground,  in  front  of  th< 
tomb  of  Abu  Rish.  a  vision  of  two  camels  having  legs  four  cubits  it 
length,  with  heads  like  those  of  buffaloes,  hair  long  and  bristly  like  i 
thorn-bush,  large  round  eyes  glistening  with  a  greenish  lustre,  jet-blacl 
skins,  and  other  features  like  those  of  men.   The  tomb  had  become  im 
mensely  large,  and  had  taken  the  shape  of  a  minaret  towering  into  th< 
clouds.    It  then  began  to  shake,  and  Sheikh  Aadi  in  his  fright  over 
turned  a  water-jar  that  was  standing  by  his  side;  and  the  apparition 
which  had  turned  into  the  shape  of  a  handsome  boy  with  a  peacock's  tai1 
exhorted  him :    "Do  not  be  afraid ;  the  minaret,  indeed,  will  fall  am 
destroy  the  earth,  but  you  and  those  who  hear  your  word,  shall  not  b 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


509 


tarmed,  and  shall  rule  over  the  ruins.  I  am  Melek-Taus,  and  have 
:hosen  you  to  publish  the  religion  of  the  truth  over  the  earth."  This 
aid,  he  took  Sheikh  Aadi's  spirit  with  him  into  heaven,  where  it  stayed 
or  seven  years,  receiving  instruction  in  all  truths,  while  the  body  of  the 
aint  remained  asleep  by  the  tomb  of  Abu  Rish.  When  his  soul  returned 
o  it  from  the  sky,  the  water  had  not  yet  run  out  of  the  overturned  jar. 

THE  GUEBRES  OR  FIRE-WORSHIPERS. 

Zoroaster,  the  prophet  of  Iran,  born  about  660  B.  C,  is  the  founder 
)f  this  religion.  There  are  two  prevailing  ideas  about  his  birthplace,  some 
>elieving  that  it  was  Babylonia,  while  others  say  it  was  Oroomiah.  There 
ire  many  good  reasons  for  believing  that  Oroomiah  was  his  birth- 
)lace.  First — The  original  worshipers  were  Persians,  and  their  religion 
vas  started  in  Persia.  Second — All  Oriental  scholars  and  writers  sup- 
>ose  this  was  his  native  city.  Third — In  the  district  immediately  sur- 
ounding  Oroomiah,  there  are  more  than  twenty-five  immense  hills  of 
tshes,  the  remaining  monuments  of  the  fire-worshipers  of  this  region. 

The  canonical  gospels  tell  us  of  the  three  Magi  who  came  from  the 
iast  to  worship  Christ  and  an  apocryphal  gospel  adds  the  statement 
hat  they  came  in  compliance  with  a  prophecy  of  Zoroaster.  We  quote 
he  following  passage,  which  is  a  condensed  statement  of  Zoroaster's 
lie: 

"Tradition  says  that  Zoroaster  retired  from  the  world  when  he  came 
)f  age  and  that  he  lived  for  some  years  upon  a  remote  mountain  in  the 
;ilence  of  the  forest  or  taking  shelter  in  a  lonely  cave.  It  was  the  solemn 
stillness  of  such  surroundings  that  lifted  him  into  direct  communion  with 
jod.  A  divine  vision  is  accorded  him  on  the  occasion,  apparently,  of 
iome  religious  conference;  and  at  the  age  of  thirty,  after  leaving  the 
Iranian  Sinai,  he  is  prepared  to  teach  a  new  law.  "Righteousness  is  the 
)est  good" — "Ashem  vohu  vahishtem  asti" — is  his  watchword;  but  he 
inds  little  fruitful  soil  for  his  theme.  Over  the  land  of  Iran  he  wanders ; 
hrough  the  territory  of  the  modern  Afghanistan  he  turns,  and  for  a 
ime  he  actually  tarries  in  the  country  of  Turan.  But  it  is  to  deaf  ears 
:hat  he  preaches,  and  his  inspiration  seems  almost  destined  to  have  been 
n  vain. 

"The  rulers  harden  their  hearts  before  the  newly-inspired  prophet; 
;he  people  fail  to  accept  the  message  of  the  god  Ahura  Mazda.  And  yet 
\hura  Mazda,  or  Ormazd,  is  the  'Lord  Wisdom,  the  Sovereign  Knowl- 
edge.' 

"For  ten  years,  dervishlike  he  is  a  wanderer.   This  we  know  also 


ZOROASTER  AT  THE  AGE  OF  THIRTY. 


510 


RELIGIONS^OF^PEESIA. 


511 


from  the  tone  of  dejection  which  still  echoes  in  some  of  the  Zoroastrian 
Psalms.  Ir>  his  peregrinations  he  appears  to  have  found  his  way  once 
more  to  the  region  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  darkness  of  these  sad  years 
is  illumined,  however,  by  visions  which  help  to  make  strong  his  faith 
and  to  give  form  to  his  religious  system  and  creed.  Seven  times  are  the 
mysteries  of  heaven  revealed  to  his  transported  soul.  He  converses  not 
alone  with  Ormazd,  but  he  is  also  privileged  to  interview  the  Archangels 
of  Good  Thought,  Best  Righteousness,  Wished-for  Kingdom,  Holy  Har- 
mony (guardian  spirit  of  the  earth),  Saving  Health  and  Immortality. 
Such  are  the  names  of  the  Persian  hierarchy  of  Amshaspands ;  and  these 
allegorical  figures  or  personified  abstractions  stand  in  waiting  about  the 
throne  of  Ahura  Mazda  with  a  company  of  attendant  angels.  From  these 
divine  beings,  Zarathushtra  receives  commands  and  injunctions  which 
he  is  to  convey  to  mankind.  They  inculcate  the  doctrine  of  purity  of 
body  as  well  as  of  soul ;  they  enjoin  the  care  of  useful  animals,  especially 
the  cow  and  the  dog;  they  emphasize  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  earth, 
the  fire  and  the  water  undefiled ;  and  from  several  of  their  ordinances  we 
can  see  that  Zoroaster  was  a  civil  reformer  as  well  as  a  spiritual  guide. 
Foremost  among  the  commandments  is  the  abhorrence  of  falsehood,  the 
universal  obligation  to  speak  the  truth.  This  is  one  of  the  most  funda- 
mental of  the  ethical  tenets  that  lie  at  the  basis  of  the  entire  ancient  Per- 
sian religious  system.  A  revelation  of  the  future  is  also  vouchsafed  to 
the  soul  of  the  Prophet  during  his  sojourn  in  the  celestial  council;  but 
one  of  the  most  precious  boons  which  it  is  the  privilege  of  his  enrapt 
spirit  to  receive  in  these  moments  of  ecstasy  is  a  premonition  of  the 
resurrection  and  of  the  future  life.  Unlike  the  Mohammedan  visions  of 
ethereal  bliss,  there  is  no  jarring  note  of  pleasures  of  a  physical  kind  to 
mar  the  harmony  and  spirituality  of  this  glimpse  into  the  world  beyond 
the  present. 

"But  before  the  ecstatic  Messenger  is  allowed  to  return  to  the  world 
of  material  things,  one  word  of  warning  is  given  to  guard  him  against 
the  guile  and  deceit  of  the  Spiritual  Enemy,  Angra  Mainyu  or  Ahriman, 
as  the  devil  is  called.  At  this  moment,  then,  as  he  turns  from  the 
dazzling  splendor  of  heaven,  a  glimpse  of  the  darkness,  filth,  stench  and 
torment  of  the  'Worst  World'  is  disclosed.  There  in  the  murky  depths 
of  hell,  with  mocking  howls  and  ribald  jeers,  huddle  together  and  cower 
the  vile  crew  of  the  archfiends  and  whole  legions  of  demons,  or  'devs,' 
as  they  still  are  named  in  Persian. 

"Nor  is  this  caution  any  too  timely,  for  at  once  upon  the  hallowed 
Seer's  return  to  earth  occurs  the  temptation  by  Ahriman.   Like  the  wily 


512 


PERSIA^BY^  PERSIAN. 


Mara  seeking  to  beguile  the  newly-enlightened  Buddha,  or  the  tempter 
Satan  striving  to  betray  the  Savior  of  mankind,  the  maleficent  Ahriman 
endeavors  to  cause  the  righteous  Zarathushtra  'to  renounce  the  good  re- 
ligion of  worshipers  of  Mazda.'  This  moment  is  a  crisis ;  it  is  one  of  the 
turning-points  in  the  history  of  the  faith.  The  foul  fiend  is  repulsed  and 
vanquished  and  the  victorious  upholder  of  righteousness  chants  a  kind  of 
Te  Deum — 'yatha  ahu  vairyo' — as  a  paean  of  his  triumph.  His  victory 
over  Ahriman  is  complete,  and  it  serves  as  the  prelude  to  more  full  and 
perfect  success,  for  Zoroaster,  who  has  received  the  revelation  and  who 
has  withstood  all  temptation,  is  now  to  achieve  his  crowning  glory,  the 
conversion  of  King  Vishtaspa  who  becomes  the  Constantine  of  the 
faith." 

According  to  Zoroaster's  philosophy,  our  world  is  the  work  of  two 
hostile  principles — Spenta-mainyush,  the  good  principle,  and  Angro- 
mainyush,  the  evil  principle;  both  serving  under  one  God.  All  that  is 
good  in  the  world  comes  from  the  former;  all  that  is  bad  comes  from 
the  latter.  Zoroastrian  philosophy  teaches  that  your  good  thoughts, 
good  words  and  good  deeds  alone  will  be  your  intercessors.  Nothing 
more  will  be  wanted.  They  alone  will  save  you,  as  a  safe  pilot  to  the 
harbor  of  Heaven,  as  a  safe  guide  to  the  gates  of  Paradise.  Thus, 
Zoroastrianism  teaches  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  A  plant  called 
white  homa,  which  is  the  emblem  of  immortality,  is  guarded  by  innumer- 
able guarding  spirits.  The  number  of  these  guarding  spirits  is  99  999. 
Again,  Zoroastrianism  admits  a  heaven  and  a  hell.  Between  heaven 
and  this  world  there  is  supposed  to  be  a  bridge  called  "Genevat."  Ac- 
cording to  the  Parsee  scriptures,  for  three  days  after  a  man's  death  his 
soul  remains  within  the  limits  of  this  world,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
angel  Srosh.  If  the  deceased  be  a  pious  man,  or  a  man  who  led  a 
virtuous  life,  his  soul  utters  the  words,  "Well  is  he,  by  whom  that,  which 
is  his  benefit,  becomes  the  benefit  of  anyone  else."  If  he  be  a  wicked 
man  or  one  who  led  evil  life,  his  soul  utters  these  plaintive  words:  "To 
which  land  shall  I  turn?  Whither  shall  I  go?"  On  the  dawn  of  the 
third  night,  the  departed  souls  appear  at  the  "Genevat  bridge."  This 
bridge  is  guarded  by  the  angel  Meher  Daver,  i.  e.,  Meher,  the  judge. 
He  presides  there  as  a  judge  assisted  by  the  angels  Rashue  and  Astad, 
the  former  representing  justice  and  the  latter  truth.  At  this  bridge, 
and  before  the  angel  Meher,  the  soul  of  every  man  has  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  its  doings  in  the  past  life.  Meher  Daver,  the  judge,  weighs  a 
man's  actions  by  a  scale-pan.  If  a  man's  good  actions  outweigh  his  evil 
ones,  even  by  a  small  particle,  he  is  allowed  to  pass  from  the  bridge  to 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


513 


the  other  end,  to  heaven ;  if  his  evil  actions  outweigh  his  good  ones,  even 
by  a  small  weight,  he  is  not  allowed  to  pass  over  the  bridge,  but  is 
hurled  down  into  the  deep  abyss  of  hell ;  if  his  meritorious  and  evil  deeds 
counter-balance  each  other,  he  is  sent  to  a  place  known  as  "Hamast- 
gehan,"  corresponding  to  the  Catholic  "purgatory."  His  meritorious 
deeds  would  prevent  him  from  going  to  hell,  and  his  evil  actions  would 
not  let  him  go  to  heaven.  Again,  Zoroastrian  books  say  that  the  merit 
of  good  deeds,  and  the  guiltiness  for  bad  ones,  increase  with  the  growth 
of  time,  as  capital  increases  with  interest.  Thus,  a  meritorious  deed  done 
in  youth  is  more  effective  than  that  very  deed  done  in  advanced  age. 

The  Parsee's  places  of  worship  are  known  as  fire  temples.  They 
believe  that  the  holy  fire  was  brought  down  from  Heaven  by  Zoroaster. 
Only  high  priests  can  approach  it,  and  they  must  wear  a  half-mask  over 
their  face,  lest  their  breath  should  defile  it,  and  dare  not  ever  touch  it 
with  their  hands,  but  with  golden  tools.  Tobacco-smoking  is  prohibited, 
as  the  smoker  would  defile  the  holy  fire.  "In  the  eyes  of  a  Parsee  his 
holy  fire's  brightness,  activity,  purity  and  incorruptibility  bear  the  most 
perfect  semblance  to  the  nature  and  perfection  of  the  deity."  In  estab- 
lishing a  fire  temple  fires  from  various  places  of  manufacture  are 
brought,  and  kept  in  different  vases.  Great  efforts  are  also  made  to 
obtain  fire  caused  by  lightning.  Over  one  of  these  fires  a  perforated 
metallic,  flat  tray,  with  a  handle  attached,  is  held.  On  this  tray  are 
placed  small  chips  and  dust  of  fragrant  sandalwood.  These  chips  and 
dust  are  ignited  by  the  heat  of  the  fire  below,  care  being  taken  that  the 
perforated  tray  does  not  touch  the  fire.  Thus  a  new  fire  is  created  out 
of  the  first  fire.  Then  from  this  new  fire  another  one  is  created  by  the 
same  process.  From  this  new  fire  another  is  again  produced,  and 
so  on,  until  the  process  is  repeated  nine  times.  The  fire  thus  prepared 
after  the  ninth  process  is  considered  pure.  The  fires  brought  from 
other  places  of  manufacture  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  These 
purified  fires  are  all  collected  together  upon  a  large  vase,  which  is  then 
put  in  its  proper  place  in  a  separate  chamber.  Again  when  a  Parsee 
goes  before  the  sacred  fire  which  is  kept  all  day  and  night  burning  in 
the  fire  temples  the  officiating  priest  presents  before  him  the  ashes  of  a 
part  of  the  consumed  fire.  The  Parsee  applies  it  to  his  forehead.  A 
Parsee  prays  sixteen  times  during  the  day,  the  same  prayers  have  to  be 
repeated  by  the  fire-worshipers.  He  repeats  his  prayers  early  when  he 
arises  in  the  morning  and  before  and  after  washing,  before  and  after 
each  meal,  etc.  But  three  main  prayers  are  to  the  sun,  when  the  sun 
comes  up,  with  bared  breast  he  stands  upon  the  banks  of  the  river,  as 


514 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


soon  as  the  rays  of  the  sun  appear  he  repeats  his  prayer.  And  at  noon 
when  the  sun  is  right  above,  in  like  manner  he  repeats  his  prayer  and  at 
night,  while  the  sun  is  going  clown,  they  are  all  waiting  to  offer  up  their 
prayers  to  the  sun  which  is  fast  disappearing.  The  children  are  always 
present  at  these  prayers  and  are  standing  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  and 
are  instructed  and  taught  how  to  repeat  the  prayers.  The  following  is 
one  of  the  prayers  to  the  sun  or  to  the  fire:  "O,  Omniscient  Lord!  I 
repent  of  all  my  sins.  I  repent  of  all  evil  thoughts  that  1  might  have 
entertained  in  my  mind,  of  all  the  evil  words  that  I  might  have  spoken, 
of  all  the  evil  actions  that  I  might  have  committed.  O,  Omniscient 
Lord!  I  repent  of  all  the  faults  that  might  have  originated  with  me, 
whether  they  refer  to  thoughts,  words,  or  deeds,  whether  they  pertain 
to  my  body  or  soul,  whether  they  be  in  connection  with  the  material 
world  or  spiritual." 

To  educate  their  children  is  a  spiritual  duty  of  Zoroastrian  parents. 
Education  is  necessary,  not  only  for  the  material  good  of  the  children  and 
the  parents,  but  also  for  their  spiritual  good.  According  to  the  Parsee 
books,  the  parents  participate  in  the  meritoriousness  of  the  good  acts 
performed  by  their  children  as  the  result  of  a  good  education,  imparted 
to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  parents  neglect  the  education  of 
their  children,  and  if  as  a  result  of  this  neglect,  they  do  wonderful  acts 
or  evil  deeds,  the  parents  have  a  spiritual  responsibility  for  such  acts. 
In  proportion  to  the  malignity  or  evilness  of  these  acts  the  parents  are 
responsible  to  God  for  the  neglect  of  the  education  of  their  children. 
It  is,  as  it  were,  a  spiritual  self-interest  that  must  prompt  a  Parsee  to 
look  to  the  good  education  of  his  children  at  an  early  age.  The  proper 
age  recommended  by  religious  Parsee  books  for  ordinary  education  is 
7.  Before  that  age  children  should  have  home  education  with  their 
parents,  especially  with  the  mother.  At  the  age  of  7,  after  a  little  religi- 
ous education,  a  Parsee  child  is  invested  with  Sudreh  and  Kusti,  i.  e., 
the  sacred  shirt  and  thread.  A  Parsee  may  put  on  the  dress  of  any 
nationality  he  likes,  but  under  that  dress  he  must  always  wear  the 
sacred  shirt  and  thread.  These  are  the  symbols  of  his  being  a  Zoroast- 
rian. 

These  symbols  are  full  of  meaning,  and  act  as  perpetual  monitors, 
advising  the  wearer  to  lead  a  life  of  purity,  of  physical  and  spiritual 
purity.  A  Parsee  is  enjoined  to  remove  and  put  on  again  immediately 
the  sacred  thread  several  times  during  the  day,  saying  a  very  short 
prayer  during  the  process.  He  has  to  do  so  early  in  the  morning  on 
rising  from  bed,  before  meals  and  after  ablutions.    The  putting  on  of 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


515 


symbolic  thread  and  the  accompanying  short  prayer  remind  him  to  be 
in  a  state  of  repentance  for  misdeeds,  if  any,  and  to  preserve  good 
thoughts,  good  words,  and  good  deeds. 

Female  education  claims  as  much  attention  among  the  Parsees  as 
male  education.  Physical  education  is  as  much  spoken  of  in  the  Zo- 
roastrian  books  as  mental  and  moral  education.  The  health  of  the 
body  is  considered  the  first  requisite  for  the  health  of  the  soul.  That  the 
physical  education  of  the  ancient  Persians,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Parsees,  was  a  subject  of  admiration  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  is  well  known. 

Obedience  to  parents  is  a  religious  virtue  with  the  Zoroastrian  re- 
ligion. One  of  the  blessings  that  a  priest  prays  for  in  a  house  on  perform- 
ing the  Afringan  ceremony  is  the  obedience  of  the  children  to  the  head  of 
the  family.  He  prays :  "May  obedience  overcome  disobedience  in  this 
house ;  may  peace  overcome  dissension ;  may  charity  overcome  want  of 
charity ;  may  courtesy  overcome  pride ;  may  truth  overcome  falsehood." 
Zoroastrianism  asks  its  disciples  to  keep  the  earth  pure,  to  keep  the  air 
pure  and  to  keep  the  water  pure.  It  considers  the  sun  as  the  greatest 
purifier.  In  places  where  the  rays  of  the  sun  do  not  enter,  fire  over  which 
fragrant  wood  is  burnt  is  the  next  purifier.  It  is  a  great  sin  to  pollute 
water  by  decomposing  matter.  Not  only  is  the  commission  of  a  fault  of 
this  kind  a  sin,  but  also  the  omission,  when  one  sees  such  a  pollution, 
of  taking  proper  means  to  remove  it.  On  the  domestic  and  social  life 
of  the  Parsees  we  find  that,  according  to  the  teachings  of  the  Parsee 
books,  a  husband  is  a  king  and  the  wife  the  queen  of  the  household. 
On  the  husband  devolves  the  duty  of  maintaining  his  wife  and  children ; 
on  the  wife,  that  of  making  the  home  comfortable  and  cheerful.  The 
qualifications  of  a  good  husband,  from  a  Zoroastrian  point  of  view,  are 
that  he  must  be  young  and  handsome,  strong,  brave  and  healthy,  dili- 
gent and  industrious  so  as  to  maintain  his  wife  and  children,  truthful,  as 
he  would  prove  true  to  herself  and  true  to  all  others  with  whom  he 
would  come  in  contact,  and  wise  and  educated.  A  wise  and  intelligent 
and  educated  husband  is  compared  to  a  fertile  piece  of  land  which  gives 
a  plentiful  crop,  whatever  kind  of  seeds  are  sown  in  it.  The  qualifica- 
tions of  a  good  wife  are  that  she  be  wise  and  educated,  modest  and 
courteous,  obedient  and  chaste.  Obedience  to  her  husband  is  the  first 
duty  of  a  Zoroastrian  wife.  Marriage  is  an  institution  which  is  greatly 
encouraged  by  the  spirit  of  the  Parsee  religion.  It  is  especially  recom- 
mended in  the  Parsee  scriptures  on  the  ground  that  a  married  life  is  more" 
likely  to  be  happy  than  an  unmarried  one,  that  a  married  person  is  more 


516 


RELIGIONS  OP  PERSIA. 


517 


likely  to  be  able  to  withstand  physical  and  mental  afflictions  than  an  un- 
married person,  and  that  a  married  man  is  more  likely  to  lead  a  religious 
and  virtuous  life  than  an  unmarried  one.  The  following  verse  in  the 
Gatha  conveys  this  meaning:  "I  say  (these)  words  to  you  marrying 
brides  and  to  you,  bridegrooms.  Impress  trlem  in  your  mind.  May  you 
two  enjoy  the  life  of  good  mind  by  following  the  laws  of  religion.  Let 
each  one  of  you  clothe  the  other  with  righteousness  because  then  as- 
suredly there  will  be  a  happy  life  for  you."  An  unmarried  person  is 
represented  as  unhappy  as  a  fertile  piece  of  ground  that  is  carelessly 
allowed  to  be  uncultivated  by  its  owner.  Marriage  being  thus  considered 
a  good  institution,  and  being  recommended  by  the  religious  scriptures, 
it  is  deemed  a  very  meritorious  act  for  a  Parsee  to  help  his  co-religion- 
ists to  lead  a  married  life.  Several  rich  Parsees  have,  with  this  charitable 
view,  founded  endowment  funds,  from  which  young  and  deserving  brides 
are  given  small  sums  on  the  occasion  of  their  marriage  for  the  prelim- 
inary expenses  of  starting  in  married  life.  Fifteen  is  the  minimum  mar- 
riageable age  spoken  of  by  the  Parsee  books.  The  parents  have  a  voice 
of  sanction  or  approval  in  the  selection  of  wives  and  husbands.  Mutual 
friends  of  parents  or  marrying  parties  may  bring  about  a  good  selec- 
tion. Among  the  Parsees  the  wedding  ceremony  is  very  interesting. 
Children  are  betrothed  whenever  the  parents  find  a  suitable  wife  or  hus- 
band, as  the  case  may  be.  The  "fire  priest"  then  has  to  decide  whether 
the  match  is  a  suitable  one.  When  the  children  become  of  age,  the 
"fire  priest"  sets  the  day  for  the  celebration.  In  the  Parsees*  year  there 
are  only  a  few  days  which  are  considered  proper  for  marriage  ceremonies, 
and  when  these  days  do  arrive,  it  sometimes  looks  as  if  half  the  people 
in  the  place  were  being  married.  One  very  queer  idea  is  that  the  cere- 
mony must  always  take  place  on  the  ground  floor  of  the  house.  It  begins 
by  the  young  couple  bowing  to  the  ground  before  the  "fire  priests," 
after  which  they  grasp  each  other  by  the  hand.  Torches  are  then 
lighted  with  fire,  taken  from  the  temple.  These  the  priests  wave  over 
the  heads  of  the  couple,  while  sprinkling  them  with  sacred  water.  Then 
the  priests  take  a  large  veil,  which  they  place  over  the  heads  of  the 
couple  and  one  of  the  priests.  While  they  are  under  the  veil,  the  other 
priests  intone  a  chant  addressed  to  the  man,  telling  him  to  be  faithful 
to  his  wife,  and  calling  the  blessings  of  the  spirits  of  the  water,  fire  and 
sun  upon  him.  After  this  the  theme  of  the  chant  changes,  and  addresses 
the  bride.  When  the  chant  ceases  the  veil  is  taken  off  and  the  pair  are 
made  husband  and  wife.  In  the  selection  of  a  wife,  it  is  held  as  essential 
that  she  must  have  a  fine,  sounding  name,  no  physical  defects,  beautiful 


518 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


hair,  eyes  and  teeth,  and  a  sweet  voice,  besides  being  very  graceful  in 
movements  and  proportions.  When  the  selection  is  made,  and  the  planets 
and  stars  consulted,  the  Laganpatrika  is  made  out,  in  which  the  names 
of  the  parties  and  the  horoscope  of  each  is  cast  and  written  and  the  most 
suitable  kind  of  marriage  selected  from  the  eight  varieties  that  are 
prescribed  in  the  Shastras.  Before  presenting  himself  to  his  wife,  the 
bridegroom  must  prepare  himself  by  prayers.  On  the  wedding  day, 
the  bridegroom  takes  his  seat  at  one  end  of  the  hall  on  a  raised  plat- 
form in  the  house  of  the  bride's  father.  Soon  the  bride  enters,  accom- 
panied by  her  father,  and  takes  her  seat  at  the  bridegroom's  right  hand. 
A  young  priest  sets  a  censer  of  fire  at  their  feet,  symbolic  of  their  warm 
affections.  Before  the  bride,  a  stone  such  as  is  used  for  pounding  rice 
or  wheat,  is  laid  on  the  ground ;  this  she  steps  on  three  times,  to  show 
that  she  thoroughly  realizes  the  cares  and  responsibilities  she  is  now 
about  to  undertake.  Meanwhile,  two  priests  stand  waving  lighted 
torches  over  her  and  repeating  a  prayer.  After  the  bridegroom  has 
made  an  offering  of  oil  to  the  gods  for  giving  him  a  wife,  the  priests 
hand  him  a  torch,  which  he  waves  around  her  three  times  to  typify  that 
his  love  will  always  encircle  her.  The  bride  then  makes  her  offering 
of  oil  and  rice  to  the  gods.  A  new  garment  is  then  put  on  the  bride  by 
her  father,  who  fastens  the  foot  of  it  to  the  foot  of  the  bridegroom's 
dress.  Bride  and  groom  then  clasp  hands  while  the  father  binds  them 
together  with  a  cord  made  of  grass,  indicative  of  the  marriage  tie.  After 
the  bride  has  gone  seven  times  around  the  fire  repeating  the  marriage 
vows,  the  priest  chants  a  hymn  and  the  marriage  is  accomplished. 

Marriage  can  be  contracted  only  with  persons  of  their  own  creed. 
Polygamy  is  forbidden  except  after  nine  years  of  sterility,  then  a  man 
is  allowed  to  marry  another  woman.  Divorces  are  entirely  forbidden. 
The  crimes  of  fornication  and  adultery  are  very  severely  punished.  The 
women  are  delicate  in  frame  with  small  hands ;  they  are  fine  looking, 
with  brave  beautiful  black  eyes  and  long  hair.  They  appear  somewhat 
free  in  public,  but  take  charge  of  household  affairs  at  home. 

When  the  case  of  a  sick  person  is  hopeless  the  priest  advances  to 
the  bed  and  repeats  texts  from  the  sacred  book  called  Avesta,  which 
are  to  be  consolation  to  the  dying  man.  After  death  the  body  is  taken 
to  the  ground  floor  where  it  was  born  and  after  being  washed  and  per- 
fumed, and  dressed  in  white,  it  is  laid  upon  an  iron  bier.  A  dog  is  then 
brought  in  to  take  a  last  look  and  thus  drive  away  all  the  evil  spirits. 
Prayers  are  said  for  the  repose  of  the  departed  soul.  All  the  men  friends 
go  to  the  door,  bow  down  and  raise  their  heads  after  touching  the  floor, 


520 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSTAN. 


as  an  indication  of  their  sorrow  for  the  departed.  The  body,  when  put 
upon  the  bier,  is  covered  from  head  to  foot,  and  two  men  bring-  it  out  of 
the  house  and  give  it  to  four  pall-bearers  who  are  dressed  in  clean  white 
clothes.  As  they  pass  with  the  body  all  who  are  present  bow  to  it  out 
of  respect.  The  men  friends  form  a  procession  with  the  priests  to  the 
Dak-ha-na  or  "Tower  of  Silence."  These  towers  are  constructed  of 
stone  twenty-five  feet  high,  without  any  entrance  except  by  a  ladder  to 
the  top.  The  tower  is  unroofed.  Upon  arriving  at  the  tower  prayers 
are  said  in  the  prayer  house  which  contains  a  fire  sanctuary.  After  this 
the  body  is  placed  on  a  special  layer  of  mortar,  where  it  is  exposed.  Soon 
the  flesh  disappears,  being  devoured  by  birds  while  the  skeleton  remains. 
After  a  certain  length  of  time  the  bones  are  removed  to  a  place  prepared 
for  keeping  them  from  being  exposed  to  the  birds,  rain  and  air.  This 
work  must  be  done  in  fine  clear  weather,  in  case  of  bad  weather  the 
body  must  be  kept  until  the  weather  is  clear,  for  which  purpose  places 
are  provided.  When  the  body  is  exposed  to  the  birds,  etc.,  there  are 
signs  which  tell  the  character  of  the  dead  man.  If  the  birds  touch  the 
right  eye  first  he  was  a  good  man,  and  if  they  touch  the  left  eye  first  then 
he  was  a  bad  man. 

Again,  on  the  death  of  their  dear  ones,  the  rich  and  the  poor  all 
pay  various  sums,  according  to  their  means,  in  charity.  These  sums 
are  announced  on  the  occasion  of  the  Oothumna  or  the  ceremony  on 
the  third  day  after  death.  The  rich  pay  large  sums  on  these  occasions 
to  commemorate  the  names  of  their  dear  ones. 

A  child  of  the  Parsees  must  be  born  upon  the  ground  floor  of  the 
house.  That  is  a  requirement  of  their  religion,  that  its  life  be  commenced 
in  humility  and  by  good  thoughts,  words  and  actions.  The  mother  is  not 
to  be  seen  by  any  one  for  forty  days.  After  that  she  washes  herself  with 
holy  water  which  has  been  sanctified  by  the  priest.  A  Parsee  rejects 
pork,  ham  and  camel  flesh,  and  will  not  eat  anything  cooked  by  one  out- 
side of  the  Parsee  religion. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  Persian  monarchy,  under  the  last  Sas- 
sanian  king.  Yezdegerd,  at  the  battle  of  Nehavand,  in  A.  D.  642,  the 
religion  received  a  check  at  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who,  with  sword 
in  one  hand  and  Koran  in  the  other,  made  the  religion  of  Islam  both 
state  religion  and  the  national  religion  of  the  country.  But  many  of 
those  who  adhered  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers  quitted  their  ancient  fath- 
erland for  the  hospitable  shores  of  India.  Now  we  have  in  Persia  only 
about  15,000  Zoroastrians.  The  Mohammedans  called  them  "guebres," 
i.  e.,  ungodly.    Most  of  them  live  in  Kerman  Yeza,  on  the  soil  of  the 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


521 


motherland.  The  men  are  good  citizens,  humble,  honest  and  generous, 
especially  to  their  own  brethren,  and  are  also  industrious,  intelligent, 
handsome,  clean  in  appearance  and  faithful  to  their  religion. 

HISTORY  OF  AKHIKAR,  THE  WISE  SECRETARY  OF 
SANKHERIB,  KING  OF  ASHUR  NINEVE. 

In  the  twentieth  year  of  Sankherib,  King  of  Ashur  and  Ninive,  I, 
Akhikar,  was  the  secretary  of  the  king,  and  when  I  was  young  it  was 
told  to  me  that  I  would  have  no  son,  and  while  I  had  accumulated  riches 
and  wealth  more  than  can  be  told,  and  I  married  sixty  wives,  for 
each  one  of  them  having  built  a  residence  and  no  son  was  born  to  me, 
then  I,  Akhikar,  built  a  large  room  and  put  wood  in  it  to  burn  there 
spices ;  and  so  I  said  : 

O  Lord  God,  while  I  die  and  will  not  leave  any  son,  what  will 
the  people  say  about  me?  They  will  say  Akhikar  was  a  right  and  good 
man  and  worshiper  of  the  gods  and  yet  he  died  without  leaving  a  son  or 
daughter  to  attend  to  his  funeral  and  to  inherit  his  riches,  and  the  people 
will  say  his  wealth  was  a  curse  like  that  of  an  accursed  man.  Wherefore 
T  beseech  thee,  O  Lord  God  to  give  me  a  male  child,  so  that  when  I  die 
he  may  put  some  earth  upon  my  eyes.   And  I  heard  a  voice,  saying: 

0  Akhikar,  the  wise  secretary,  whatsoever  you  asked  of  me  I  heard  and 
gave  to  you,  and  while  you  are  without  a  child,  it  is  sufficient  for  you 
not  to  be  sorry.  But  behold  Nadan,  your  cousin,  will  be  to  you  a  son 
whom  you  can  teach  everything  as  he  grows.  When  I  heard  this  I  was 
greatly  sorrowed,  but  I  obeyed  the  command  and  I  took  Nadan,  my 
cousin,  to  be  my  son,  and  because  he  was  young  I  left  him  in  the  care  of 
eight  women  to  nurse  him,  ordering  that  he  should  be  fed  with  honey 
and  cream.  I  ordered  also  that  his  place  should  be  soft  and  comfortable 
and  his  garments  be  of  precious  stuffs.  And  my  son  grew  rapidly,  like 
the  young  of  the  animals  in  the  wilderness.  While  he  was  growing  I 
began  to  teach  him  writing  and  wisdom.  Once,  when  my  Lord  King 
returned  home  from  a  certain  place  I  was  called  and  he  told  me:  "O 
Akhikar,  the  wise  secretary  and  my  counselor,  when  you  should  be  old 
and  die,  who  will  be  after  you  the  man  to  serve  me  as  you  have  done." 
And  I  answered  to  him  and  said:  Forever  live  my  Lord,  the  King;  I 
have  a  son  who  is  as  wise  as  I  am  and  he  knows  writing  and  reading  as 

1  do.  And  the  king  said  to  me,  bring  him  here  that  I  may  see  him,  and 
we  will  see  whether  he  is  able  to  stand  before  me,  then  I  will  allow  you 
to  rest  and  you  will  take  care  of  your  old  age  in  honor  till  the  end  of  your 


5C2 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


life.  Then  I  brought  my  son  Nadan  and  presented  him  to  the  king. 
When  my  lord,  the  king,  saw  him,  he  exclaimed,  blessed  be  this  day 
before  the  Gods.  As  Akhikar  served  my  father  Serkhadum  and  myself, 
he  had  a  good  luck  that  he  raised  his  son  in  time  to  be  my  secretary 
after  him  and  he  will  end  his  life  in  peace.  Then  I,  Akhikar,  worshiped 
before  the  king  and  said :  Forever  live  the  lord,  my  king,  as  I  did  serve 
you  and  your  father  to  this  day,  so  I  trust  your  goodness  will  be 
bestowed  upon  my  son  and  double  grace  be  upon  him.  The  king  upon 
this  gave  his  right  hand  to  my  son,  and  I  said  while  I  am  in  the  service  I 
will  not  cease  to  teach  my  son  until  he  has  learned  everything. 

So  I  used  to  say  to  him ;  listen  to  me,  O,  my  son,  Nadan,  come  to 
my  thought  and  you  are  to  remember  the  words  of  my  Gods.  My  son, 
Nadan,  if  you  heard  a  word  let  it  die  in  your  heart  and  do  not  tell  any- 
body, if  otherwise,  it  will  become  like  a  fire  and  burn  your  mouth.  You  will 
bring  a  spot  upon  yourself  and  you  will  throw  the  blame  upon  the  gods. 
My  son,  everything  that  you  hear  do  not  tell,  and  do  not  reveal  every- 
thing that  you  see.  My  son,  do  not  lift  up  your  eyes  to  see  the  woman 
who  put  black  color  on  her  eyes,  and  do  not  covet  for  her  in  your  heart. 
Because  if  you  give  her  all  that  you  have,  still  you  will  not  have  any 
satisfaction  and  you  will  be  only  a  sinner  before  Gods.  My  son,  do  not 
commit  adultery  with  the  wife  of  your  companion,  that  others  should 
not  do  the  same  with  your  wife.  My  son,  do  not  be  in  haste  with  your 
words,  like  the  almond  tree  that  flourishes  so  soon  but  its  fruits 
become  ripe  last  of  all  other  fruit  trees.  But  rather  like  the  mul- 
berry which  blossoms  the  last  but  gives  fruit  the  first.  My  son, 
bow  your  head  and  command  your  voice  and  do  not  make  much 
noise  about  your  doings,  for  if  by  making  noise  something  could 
be  done  a  donkey  would  make  a  great  deal  since  no  one  else  can  pro- 
duce so  much  noise.  My  son,  it  is  better  to  roll  stones  with  the  wise  than 
to  drink  with  the  fool.  My  son,  pour  out  your  wine  upon  the  graves 
of  the  saints  rather  than  drink  it  with  bad  people.  My  son,  be  careful 
when  you  are  in  the  presence  of  wise  men  and  have  no  company  with  the 
foolish.  Do  not  mingle  with  noisy  people  that  you  may  not  be  numbered 
among  them.  My  son,  while  you  have  shoes  on  your  feet  try  to  tread 
down  the  thorns  and  thistles,  that  your  own  children  have  not  to  walk 
upon  them  with  bare  feet.  My  son,  if  a  rich  man  should  eat  serpent  flesh, 
the  people  would  say  that  is  for  medicine,  but  if  a  poor  man  eats  of  it 
they  will  say  he  was  hungry.  My  son,  if  your  enemy  is  in  good  luck  do 
not  be  angry,  and  if  he  is  in  trouble  do  not  rejoice  in  your  heart.  Keep 
out  from  the  woman  that  speaks  in  whispers  to  you  but  loud  to  others. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


523 


Do  not  go  after  the  good-looking  women  but  go  rather  with  those  who 
have  common  sense,  for  their  beauty  is  in  their  good  behavior  and  decent 
words.  My  son,  if  you  should  meet  your  enemy  in  the  field,  be  wise  in 
your  words.  My  son,  the  bad  man  falls  and  will  never  get  up,  but  the 
righteous  will  forever  remain  because  Gods  are  with  him.  My  son,  whip 
your  child  when  it  is  young,  because  that  will  be  to  him  like  the  dew  on 
the  field,  and  will  keep  him  on  the  right  way.  My  son,  overcome  your 
child  while  it  is  young  before  it  will  grow  wild  and  overpower  you.  Of 
his  bad  deeds  you  will  be  ashamed.  My  son,  keep  the  good  servant  that 
will  not  run  away  and  do  not  keep  a  maid  servant  that  will  steal,  that  you 
may  not  lose  your  goods.  "  My  son,  the  words  of  untrue  men  are  like  fat 
sparrows  that  will  soon  be  caught.  Again  the  words  of  untrue  men  are 
heavy  like  iron,  but  they  will  soon  be  lighter  than  the  air  and  fly  away. 
My  son,  do  not  bring  upon  yourself  the  curse  of  your  father  and  mother, 
that  you  may  rejoice  in  the  goodness  of  your  own  children.  My  son,  do 
not  go  on  the  road  without  arms  and  weapons  because  you  do  not  know 
what  enemy  you  will  meet  on  the  way.  My  son,  as  it  is  delightful  to  see 
a  tree  with  green  leaves  and  delicious  fruits,  so  it  is  to  behold  a  family 
with  children.  The  man  that  has  no  wife  and  children  is  like  a  tree  on 
the  wayside,  and  everyone  that  passes  by  will  eat  of  its  fruit  and  stone  it 
afterwards.  My  son,  do  not  think  yourself  wiser  than  your  master,  but 
do  respect  and  honor  him  if  you  see  him  doing  wisely.  My  son,  do  not 
say  lies  before  your  master  but  be  rather  truthful  that  you  may  be  always 
welcome  to  him. 

My  son,  in  the  days  of  thy  evils  do  not  be  discouraged,  neither  blas- 
pheme your  Gods  that  they  may  not  punish  you.  My  son,  if  you  have 
two  servants  do  not  tell  one  of  them,  "you  are  better"  until  you  are  well 
acquainted  with  them.  My  son,  if  a  dog  leaves  his  master  and  follows 
you,  show  your  stick  to  him  because  he  will  one  day  leave  you  also.  My 
son,  the  sheep  that  rambles  around  too  much  will  become  a  victim  of  the 
wolf.  My  son,  make  your  tongue  sweet  and  your  words  will  also  be 
spiced,  because  the  tail  of  the  dog  will  give  him  bread,  if  he  shakes  it, 
but  his  mouth  gives  him  whippings.  My  son,  do  not  give  your  comrade 
opportunity  to  press  your  feet  because  the  result  will  be  that  he  will  after 
i hat  also  pinch  your  neck.  My  son,  whip  the  wise  by  wise  words,  it  will 
be  to  him  like  a  fever,  but  if  you  whip  the  fool  with  many  sticks  he  will 
never  feel  the  meaning  of  it.  My  son,  if  you  send  a  wise  man  on  an  errand 
do  not  give  him  too  much  instruction,  but  instead  of  sending  a  fool  to 
look  after  a  business  it  is  far  better  you  go  yourself.  My  son,  try  your 
servant  with  bread  and  water  and  you  will  find  whether  he  is  honest. 


584 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


My  son,  if  you  are  invited  to  weddings  or  other  parties  of  enjoyment 
try  to  be  the  first  to  go  in  and  also  the  first  to  leave,  for  if  you  want 
to  be  the  last  or  one  of  them  you  witness  much  things  that  will 
vex  you.  My  son,  the  man  who  has  money  to  spend  is  re- 
garded to  be  wise,  but  the  poor  is  called  a  fool  and  the  people 
will  not  respect  him.  My  son,  I  ate  bitter  things  and  swallowed 
things  which  were  sour,  but  did  not  find  anything  that  would  equal  to 
poverty.  My  son,  I  carried  lead  and  iron  but  debt  was  heavier  than  both 
to  be  borne.  My  son,  it  is  better  that  a  man  should  starve  than  to  live 
on  money  borrowed  and  cheat  the  people.  My  son,  teach  your  child  to 
bear  hardships  and  endure  sufferings,  then  he  will  appreciate  enjoyment. 
My  son,  it  is  better  to  be  blind  with  eyes  than  to  be  blind  by  mind,  because 
he  who  is  deprived  of  sight  can  still  find  his  way  in  life,  but  woe  to  him 
that  is  blind  in  mind,  he  will  never  find  his  way.  It  is  better  to  blow  a 
neighbor  than  a  brother  in  the  face.  A  good  name  is  better  than  beauty, 
because  beauty  will  soon  fade  away,  while  the  good  name  will  last 
forever.  My  son,  death  is  better  than  life  to  one  who  has  no  rest.  My 
son,  it  is  better  to  go  into  the  house  of  mourning  than  to  remain  in  the 
society  of  those  who  are  given  to  much  pleasure.  My  son,  one  sparrow 
in  your  hand  is  better  than  thousands  that  are  flying  in  the  air.  My 
son,  it  is  better  to  have  a  little  property  under  your  own  control  than 
to  have  a  great  wealth  that  is  scattered.  A  living  fox  is  better  than  a 
dead  lion.  My  son,  it  is  good  to  keep  the  secret  of  your  comrades,  be- 
cause if  it  comes  in  the  public  it  will  do  damage  to  him.  My  son, 
be  careful  to  assist  as  mediator  between  a  young  man  and  a  young 
lady  in  affairs  of  matrimony,  for  if  the  engagement  would  prove  a 
happy  one  they  will  not  remember  you,  but  if  it  proves  fatal  all  the 
curse  of  their  hearts  will  come  upon  you.  Give  your  gods  a  portion  of 
what  you  have.  Do  not  eat  bread  with  a  man  that  does  not  known  how 
to  behave. 

Then  I,  Akhikar,  instructed  my  son  Nadan  in  this  way,  and  I 
thought  in  my  heart  that  he  would  be  wise  and  stand  before  the  King 
to  serve  him.  But,  alas,  he  let  all  my  words  pass  upon  his  head  like  a 
wane,  and  he  thought  in  his  heart,  my  father  is  growing  old  and  has 
lost  his  mind,  therefore,  I  will  do  as  I  please;  and  my  son  Nadan  began 
to  waste  my  wealth  without  any  consideration,  and  before  my  own  eyes 
he  used  to  ill  treat  my  servants  and  torture  the  animals.  When  I  saw 
all  his  foolishness  I  became  angry  and  commanded  him  not  to  touch 
anything  of  my  wealth  because  he  proved  to  be  unworthy  of  my  con- 
fidence and  benevolence.    I  complained  also  of  him  to  the  king,  and 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


525 


obtained  his  special  orders  that  Nadan  should  not  touch  my  riches 
while  I  am  alive. 

Then  I,  Akhikar,  took  the  younger  brother  of  Nadan  and  adopted  him 
in  his  stead.  When  Nadan  heard  this  he  became  very  angry  and  he  put 
in  his  heart  evil  thoughts  against  me,  and  went  to  the  king  trying 
by  his  instrumentality  to  carry  out  his  bad  intentions  concerning  me. 
And,  besides,  Nadan  wrote,  two  letters  in  my  name,  and  by  my  signature, 
to  kings  who  were  enemies  of  Sankherib,  the  king;  one  to  the  king  of 
Persia  and  Elam  in  which  he  wrote  the  following:  "From  the  secretary 
Akhikar,  and  bearer  of  the  king  ring  seal,  peace  to  you,  the  king  of  kings 
of  Persia  and  Elam,  when  you  receive  this  letter,  soon,  come  here  to 
Assur  to  hold  a  kingdom  without  any  fighting  or  shedding  of  blood. 
The  other  letter  he  addressed  in  like  manner  to  the  king  of  Egypt, 
Pharao,  in  the  following  words :  "Hasten  to  come  to  the  Eastern  parts 
of  the  country  and  you  will  meet  me  there  at  the  month  of  Addar  25 
(March),  and  I  will  let  you  go  to  Nineve  to  be  king  there." 

Writing  these  letters  with  my  own  ink  and  pen,  trying  to  imitate 
my  handwriting,  and  sealing  with  my  own  seal,  he  put  them 
in  the  palace  of  the  king,  where  he  could  soon  see  them. 
He  wrote  also  a  letter  from  the  king  to  me  in  the  follow- 
ing words :  From  Sankherib,  king  of  kings,  peace,  and  greet- 
ing to  you,  Akhikar,  my  secretary.  As  soon  as  you  re- 
ceive this  letter  take  all  the  army  and  come  into  the  field  of  Eagles  at 
the  25th  of  Addar,  and  when  you  see  me  coming  toward  you  begin  to 
fight  because  the  ambassador  and  minister  of  Pharao,  king  of  Egypt, 
have  come  out  to  try  our  country  and  find  out  our  strength.  This  letter 
was  sent  to  me  by  two  messengers  of  the  king  and  Nadan  sent  also  a 
letter  from  me  to  the  king  in  the  following  words :  From  Akhikar,  the 
secretary,  to  Sankherib,  the  king  of  kings,  peace,  as  soon  as  you  receive 
this  writing  come  please  early  in  the  morning  to  the  Eagles  field  and 
we  shall  have  a  conversation.  This  was  handed  to  the  king.  Then 
Nadan  went  into  the  palace  before  the  king  walking  around  and  as  if 
it  were,  he  suddenly  discovered  one  of  the  letters  placed  there  before 
by  himself,  and  he  seemed  to  be  surprised  at  this  and  after  reading  gave 
it  to  the  king.  Then  Sankherib  took  it  and,  after  examining  it,  gave 
it  back  to  Nadan,  ordering  him  to  read  it  loud.  When  the  king  heard 
what  it  contained  he  became  angry  and  exclaimed :  What  evil  did  I  do 
to  Akhikar,  that  he  should  destroy  my  kingdom  and  me  in  this  way. 
Then  Nadan  began  to  speak,  saying:  My  lord,  the  king,  worry  not, 
neither  be  angry,  but  if  it  please  him  we  shall  go  to  the  Eagles  field  at 


526 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


the  time  mentioned  and  learn  all  the  truth.    Then  Nadan  brought  the 
king  to  the  Eagles  field  where  I  was  awaiting  with  the  army.  I,  Akhikar] 
was  doing  just  as  I  were  fighting  according  to  the  king's  instructions 
the  letter  contained,  that  was  sent  to  me  previously.    When  the  king  saw 
this  he  ran  away  and  he  was  greatly  afraid.   Then  Nadan  told  the  king, 
return  thou  home,  O  my  lord,  the  king,  and  I  will  bring  Akhikar  into 
your  presence  and  you  can  do  with  him  as  it  pleases  you.    Then  Nadan 
came  to  me  and  said :    The  king  sends  me  to  tell  you  that  everything 
that  you  have  done,  was  done  well  and  the  king  spoke  very  highly  of 
you,  now  let  the  army  go  home  and  come  you  into  the  presence  of  the 
king.    And  I,  Akhikar,  went  into  the  presence  of  the  king  and  he  told 
me :    I  had  given  you  such  a  high  position  and  had  made  you  a  great 
man  and  gave  you  also  the  privilege  of  resting  in  your  old  age,  but  you 
turned  and  became  one  of  my  enemies.    And  he  handed  to  me  a  letter 
which  was  written  seemingly  by  me  and  sealed  by  my  seal.    And  when 
I  read  the  letter  and  was  aware  of  its  contents,  I  became  excited  and 
could  not  speak  a  word.    I  tried  my  best  to  find  in  my  memory  at  last 
one  of  those  wise  words  to  calm  the  king,  but  was  at  a  loss  to  do  so. 
Then  the  king  ordered  to  end  my  life.    Then  I  answered  to  the  king. 
My  Lord  the  King,  forever  live,  now  since  it  is  your  pleasure  to  have  me 
killed  let  your  will  be  done,  but  know,  O  king,  that  I  am  innocent  and 
do  not  deserve  death.    Now,  I  beseech  you  to  let  me  die  in  my  own 
house,  and  be  buried  in  my  own  cemetery.    The  king  accepted  this  re- 
quest. Then  I  sent  quickly  a  word  to  my  wife,  asking  her  to  prepare  one 
thousand  girls  dressed  in  red,  fine  garments,  to  mourn  upon  me  in  order 
that  I  should  see  and  hear  how  they  would  do  when  I  should  be  dead. 
J  also  requested  my  wife  to  prepare  meals  and  all  necessary  for  a  dinner. 
Entertain   Nabo-Swapho,   the  grand  minister  of  the  king  and  his  ex- 
ecutors.   Meet  them  on  the  way  home    and  I  will  also  come  as  their 
guest.    When  my  wife  received  my  message,  she  complied  at  once 
with  all  my  requests  and  did  everything  most  satisfactory,  because  she 
was  a  wise  woman.    And  she  prepared  all  the  provisions  and  presented 
the  cup  of  wine  herself  to  each  one  of  them.    She  honored  them  all 
and  gave  to  the  executors  large  cups  full  of  wine,  so  that  they  were 
drunk  and  fell  asleep.    My  wife's  name  was  Ash-Pagh-Nith. 

And  I  prayed  in  my  heart  and  said:  "O  God,  the  Savior  of  the 
world,  Thou  knoweth  all  things  that  have  elapsed  and  all  things  to  come ; 
Thou  give  me  grace  in  the  eyes  of  Nabo-Swapho,  the  great  minister  of 
the  king."  Then  I  said  to  him  lift  up  your  eyes  and  look  to  heaven 
and  remember  the  salt  that  we  have  eaten  together,  and  do  not  think 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


527 


to  destroy  me.  Remember  that  the  father  of  the  king-  -gave  you  in  my 
hands  to  kill,  but  I  spared  your  life  because  I  was  sure  you  were  in- 
nocent and  I  kept  you  until  the  king  was  in  need  of  you  again,  and  I  re- 
ceived great  rewards  and  presents  when  I  brought  you  before  the  king. 
Let  not  the  king  know  that  I  still  live — 'but  take  the  man 
guilty  of  death  in  our  prison,  take  him  instead  of  me,  put  on  him  my 
dress,  then  awaken  the  executors  and  let  them  kill  him ;  they  will  not 
recognize  who  was  the  man,  since  they  have  all  been  drunk.  And  he  did 
according  to  my  request  and  as  soon  as  the  guilty  man  was  killed  word 
was  spread  all  over  the  country  that  Akhikar  was  killed  by  order  of  the 
king. 

Then  Nabo-Swapho  and  my  wife  prepared  a  hiding  place  for  me 
in  the  basement,  it  was  about  two  yards  wide,  and  three  and  a  hah 
yards  long,  and  the  height  was  about  three  yards,  it  was  just  between 
the  entrance  of  the  gate,  and  they  gave  me  bread  and  water  and  went  to 
tell  the  king  I  was  killed  as  he  had  ordered.  Then  he  called  Nadan 
and  told  him  what  had  happened  and  ordered  that  he  should  go  to 
mourn  upon  his  father.  And  Nadan  came  to  my  house,  but  he  neither 
remembered  me.  nor  did  he  mourn  upon  me  but  he  brought  a  multitude 
of  bad  men  and  women,  and  they  began  to  eat  and  drink,  and  were 
rejoicing  over  my  death. 

And  they  took  the  dresses  off  my  servants  and  tortured  them. 
Nadan  went  so  far  in  his  wickedness  as  to  bring  my  wife  to  submit 
to  shameful  treatment.  I  could  hear  the  lamentations  and  cries  of  all 
my  family  at  the  hand  of  the  torturer,,  and  I  was  continually  praying 
to  the  gods  to  protect  my  dear  ones  from  the  hand  of  this  wicked  man. 

After  a  few  days  Nabo-Swapho  came  into  my  cell  and  brought 
me  some  provisions.  Again  I  prayed  to  the  gods,  saying :  O  gods,  who 
are  only  holy  and  righteous  in  heaven  and  on  earth ;  I,  Akhikar,  have 
found  my  refuge  in  thee.  Remember  now,  O  gods,  that  I  gave  offerings 
and  fat  oxen  for  thy  service.  Now  I  have  been  thrown  in  a  dark  dun- 
geon where  there  is  no  light,  therefore,  hear  now  my  voice,  and  have 
mercy  upon  thy  servant.  Then  the  news  reached  Pharao,  the  King  of 
Egypt,  that  I,  Akhikar  was  killed,  and  he  was  glad  and  rejoiced  over 
my  death.  Then  he  sent  a  letter  to  Sankherib,  king  of  Assur,  say- 
ing :  From  Pharao,  King  of  Egypt  to  Sankherib,  King  of  Assur,  peace 
and  greeting:  When  you  receive  this  letter,  send  me.  please,  a  wise  man 
who  understands  all  the  sciences  in  building,  so  that  he  may  construct 
a  mighty  fortification  between  earth  and  heaven,  that  is  to  say,  in  the  air. 


528 


And  also,  he  ought  to  be  able  to  give  answers  to  all  problems  that  I 
should  ask  him. 

If  you  can  find  such  a  man  and  send  him  to  me,  I  promise  to  give 
you  all  the  revenues  of  my  empire  for  three  years ;  if  not,  send  with  the 
messenger,  who  will  hand  you  this  letter,  all  incomes  of  your  kingdom 
at  once. 

Then  Sankherib  gathered  all  the  wise  men  in  his  country  and  said  to 
them :  Which  one  of  you  will  go  to  Pharao  and  give  answers  to  his 
questions?  They  unanimously  answered,  saying:  Thou  knowest,  O 
king,  that  from  the  time  of  your  father  and  your  own  days  it  was  only 
Akhikar  the  wise  who  was  able  to  stand  before  the  kings  and  answer 
such  questions.  Now,  let  Nadan,  his  son,  who  was  educated  in  all 
the  wisdom  of  the  ages,  go  and  satisfy  the  curiosity  of  Pharao.  When 
Nadan  was  summoned  before  the  king  and  received  orders  to  go  to 
Egypt  and  stand  before  Pharao  to  answer  his  questions,  he  raised  his 
voice  and  began  to  cry  like  a  child,  and  said :  The  gods  cannot  do  such 
things,  how  can  I  do  so,  being  a  poor  human  thing?  The  king  hearing 
this,  was  much  alarmed  and  he  came  down  from  his  throne  and  put  on 
sackcloths,  kneeling  down  he  cried,  saying :  Alas,  how  I  have  put  you 
to  death,  O  my  wise  secretary,  Akhikar,  listening  to  the  words  of  a  boy. 
Now  I  cannot  find  one  among  many  like  you,  and  if  one  could  bring 
you  before  me,  how  gladly  I  would  give  him  gold  in  your  weight.  When 
Nabo-Swapho  heard  those  words,  he  fell  down  before  the  king  and 
said :  The  king  may  forever  live,  anyone  who  does  not  obey  the  order 
of  the  king  must  die.  I  am  the  person,  that  in  spite  of  your  order,  ven- 
tured to  do  otherwise,  and  now  I  am  ready  to  be  killed  at  once  because 
Akhikar  whom  you  have  commanded  me  to  kill  is  still  alive.  Then  the 
king  exclaimed,  O  Nabo-Swapho,  my  good  and  right  servant,  you  have 
not  done  evil,  but  you  did  good  by  sparing  his  life.  If  you  should  bring 
Akhikar  as  you  say,  alive,  before  me,  I  shall  certainly  give  you  a  great 
reward  and  honor  you  much.  I  will  give  you  ten  thousand  talents  of 
gold  and  fine  clothing.  When  Nabo-Swapho  heard  these  words  of  the 
king,  he  worshiped  the  king,  and  said :  swear  and  promise  that  you  will 
not  remember  my  disobedience  any  more,  and  the  king  gladly  swore 
by  an  oath  that  he  would  not  do  any  harm.  Then-  Nabo-Swapho  in  the 
very  hour  came  in  a  carriage  to  bring  me  before  the  king.  He  opened 
the  door  of  my  cell  and  I  went  out,  for  in  the  gods  I  trusted  and  they 
heard  my  prayer.  Then  I,  Akhikar,  went  and  bowed  before  the  king. 
My  hair  was  long,  also  my  beard  had  grown  on  my  breast  and  the  color 
of  my  face  had  changed,  and  my  nails  were  grown  like  the  eagles. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


529 


When  the  king  saw  me  he  wept  very  much  and  said,  "O  Akhikar, 
I  have  not  sinned  against  you,  but  your  son,  whom  you  have  trained, 
he  betrayed  you."  Then  I  said  to  the  king:  O  lord  my  king,  as  I  have 
seen  life  and  your  face  again,  I  am  thankful  to  the  gods.  The  king 
answered  to  me  then:  Goto  your  home  and  shave  your  beard,  wash 
your  body  and  take  care  of  yourself,  for  forty  days,  until  you  regain 
strength,  then  come  to  me. 

I  went  accordingly  home,  and  as  the  king  had  commanded  me  to 
do.  I  spent  forty  days  in  rest  and  recovered  my  health,  and  after  that 
I  went  again  to  the  king,  and  he  told  me  all  about  the  letters  and  the 
affairs  of  my  executors.  Did  you  hear  O  Akhikar,  what  requirement 
the  king  of  Egypt  is  making,  and  how  much  money  he  demandeth  from 
Assur  and  Nineve  ?  and  I  said,  May  the  king  live  forever,  do  not  be 
disturbed  because  of  these.  I  will  go  myself  to  Egypt  and  I  will  give 
answer  to  the  King  Pharao  and  all  your  enemies,  and  I  will  build  a 
large  castle  in  the  air  and  I  will  bring  the  promised  offer  from  Egypt 
for  you;  and  the  king  became  much  satisfied  and  made  a  great  festival 
and  ordered  that  the  best  animals  should  be  killed  and  he  gave  me 
many  precious  presents;  and  Nabo-Swapho  was  honored  with  a  seal 
above  all  the  guests  and  he  was  made  the  first  minister  of  the  empire. 
And  in  the  morning  I  wrote  a  letter  to  my  wife,  Ash-Pagh-Nith,  as  fol- 
lows: When  this  my  letter  reaches  you,  order  my  hunters  to  catch  for 
me  a  pair  of  eagles  young,  and  ordered  also  my  servant  to  prepare  two 
wheels  of  cotton  with  bags  to  contain  a  child  each,  and  ropes  in  the 
length  of  one  thousand  yards,  and  take  my  two  children,  Nabo-Khel 
and  Tabashlan,  and  give  them  to  seven  nurses  to  train  and  teach  them 
every  day  with  the  eagles  to  make  exercise  in  being  elevated  into  the 
air  on  those  wheels  and  let  them  be  tried  to  say  these  words:  "Bring 
mortar,  bricks  and  wood,  for  the  king's  servants  are  waiting  to  build 
the  castle  in  the  air. "  And  my  wife  did  everything  better  than  I  desired, 
and  I  ordered  a  trial  with  the  two  children  and  the  eagles  which  proved 
very  satisfactory.  Then  I  said  to  the  king:  "Permit  me  now  to  go 
to  Egypt,  I  am  ready  to  comply  with  the  demand  of  the  king  of  Egypt. " 
And  he  told  me,  go  and  may  the  Gods  bless  you.  And  I  took  my  ser- 
vants and  all  that  was  prepared  for  my  purpose  in  Egypt,  and  with  an 
army  I  went  away.  Throughout  the  long  journey  every  day  I  exercised 
the  two  children  with  the  eagles  and  was  glad  that  they  were  perform- 
ing their  task  wonderfully  well. 

When  we  approached  Egypt  the  ambassador  of  Pharao  came  to 
receive  me,  and  on  our  arrival  at  the  residence  of  the  king  a  special 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


house  was  at  my  disposal.  I  was  then  summoned  before  the  king 
Pharao,  and  presented  to  him  the  salutations  of  my  master,  Sankherib,. 
And  he  asked  me  what  was  my  name.  And  I  replied,  Abikhan,  the 
aunt  of  the  king.  When  Pharao  heard  this  he  was  very  angry,  and 
said:  Did  I  come  down  so  much  in  the  sight  of  your  master 
that  he  sent  an  aunt  out  to  give  an  answer  to  my  questions? 
And  he  ordered  me  to  go  to  my  rooms  and  see  the  king  the 
next  morning,  and  he  commanded  that  all  his  ministers  and  statesmen 
should  appear  before  him  that  day  in  their  precious  dresses  in  the  recep- 
tion room  that  was  most  wonderfully  ornamented.  On  the  next  morn- 
ing at  the  appointed  time  they  were  all  gathered  before  the  king,  Pharao 
and  the  king  asked  me  to  what  would  I  liken  him,  with  his  ministers 
in  their  splendor  and  glory,  and  I  replied  he  was  looking  like  Belius 
surrounded  by  his  priests,  and  he  said :  '  'Go  home  and  come  to-morrow 
morning,"  and  to  his  ministers  he  said  to  come  dressed  with  garments 
of  white  and  yellow  color.  So  we  have  gone  all  again  into  his  presence, 
and  the  king  was  also  dressed  in  like  manner.  And  Pharao  asked  me, 
saying,  O  Abkihan,  to  whom  do  you  liken  me  and  my  dignitaries? 
And  I  said,  you  look  like  the  sun  and  your  ministers  like  the  stars. 
And  he  said:  "Go  home  Abikhan,  and  again  to-morrow  on  the  next 
morning  I  went  at  the  usual  hour  and  found  the  king  dressed  in  green 
garment  while  his  ministers  had  a  multi-color  each  on.  And  the  same 
question  was  asked,  and  I  replied,  the  king  is  like  the  month  of  April 
and  the  ministers  are  like  flowers.  And  Pharao  expressed  himself 
further  and  said,  now  tell  me  to  what  you  would  liken  your  king?  And 
I  replied,  my  king  is  like  the  gods  of  heaven  and  his  ministers  are  as 
lightning.  Whenever  he  wishes  he  can  cover  the  sky  with  heavy  and  dark 
clouds  so  that  neither  the  sun  nor  the  stars  are  visible  to  the  eye,  and  if 
he  commands,  his  lightnings  strike  and  destroy  everything  on  earth, 
and  if  he  is  angry  he  makes  hail,  and  commands  the  wind  to  scatter  all 
over  the  earth  and  destroy  all  the  glories  of  spring  and  its  beautiful 
flowers.  When  Pharao  heard  this  he  became  very  much  dissatisfied  and 
said:  ''Tell  me  the  truth,  what  is  your  name?  "  I  am  Akhikar,  the 
secretary  of  King  Sankherib.  And  he  said,  are  you  still  alive?  And  I 
replied  I  was  once  in  a  great  trouble  that  would  cost  me  my  life,  but  the 
Lords  or  Gods  helped  me  out  of  it  because  I  love  truth  andrighteousness. 
And  he  said:  "Go  and  come  to-morrow  to  tell  me  something  that  was 
never  told  before  by  any  man  on  earth. ' '  And  I  heard  that  to  his  min- 
isters he  gave  instructions  to  say  next  morning  in  our  interview  to  what- 
ever that  I  should,  say  yes,  it  is  time  we  have  heard  this,  and  I  have 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


531 


written  this — From  Sankherib,  greeting,  to  Pharao:  kings  sometimes 
needs  the  assistance  of  others.  My  treasury  is  at  present  almost  empty, 
therefore  lend  me  please  10,000  talent  gold  for  an  indefinite  time. 

I  went  then  and  told  the  king  that  I  had  something  in  my  hand 
written  which  was  never  before  told  on  earth  and  nobody  had  heard 
at  any  time  of  it.  And  all  the  ministers  were  unanimous  in  declaring 
that  they  knew  it  very  well,  and  all  that  he  had  written  was  true  and 
right.  But  when  they  read  my  paper  there  was  no  bound  to  their 
astonishment.  Upon  this  the  king  said,  that  he  wished  a  castle  to  be 
built  a  thousand  yards  in  the  air,  and  I  said  that  I  was  able  to  fulfill  his 
desire. 

On  an  appointed  day  we  went  into  a  field  to  begin  the  work,  and 
I  brought  there  the  eagles  and  children  trained  before  to  accomplish 
the  work  and  soon  they  were  in  the  air,  the  children  shouting:  Bring 
material  to  build  the  castle;  mortar,  bricks,  stones  and  wood,  for  the 
king's  workmen  are  idle  and  waiting  for  you.  Of  course  they  were  all 
highly  astonished  at  this,  and  I,  Akhikar,  took  a  stick  and  began  to  whip 
all  the  servants  and  ministers  of  the  king,  saying:  I  did  my  duty,  why 
are  you  not  doing  yours,  to  carry  the  material  necessary  for  the  castle, 
and  they  all  fled  away,  and  the  king  said:  "Did  you  lose  your  mind, 
Akhikar,  who  can  carry  material  into  the  air  and  how?  And  I  replied, 
if  Sankherib,  my  king,  were  here,  we  could  build  two  castles  in  the  air 
a  day.  He  then  said  that  he  did  not  want  anything  of  the  castle  and 
commanded  me  to  see  him  next  morning.  When  I  went  into  his  pres- 
ence he  puzzled  me  with  a  strange  question,  asking  how  could  it  be  that 
his  master's  horse  gave  a  voice  at  the  stable  in  Nineve  and  here  in  Egypt 
all  the  mares  conceived?  I  asked  the  king  to  grant  me  time  for  reflec- 
tionp,  and  as  soon  as  I  was  in  my  room  I  sent  my  servant  to  bring  me 
a  cat  (cat  being  a  holy  animal  and  one  of  the  gods  in  Egypt).  I  took 
the  cat  and  bound  its  legs  and  then  put  it  under  my  arm  and  went  out 
walking  on  the  streets  and  continually  beating  it  so  that  from  its  lamen- 
tations all  the  Egyptians  were  touched,  and  they  went  to  complain 
before  the  king  of  my  cruelty.  And  the  king  at  once  sent  for  me  and 
asked  of  me  why  I  was  so  shamefully  treating  their  god.  And  I  said 
the  king  live  forever,  the  cat  has  done  me  much  damage  last  night. 
I  had  a  very  nice  rooster  in  Nineve,  and  he  was  so  clever  that  every  time 
when  the  king  wanted  me  the  rooster  would  indicate  by  crowing. 
Last  night  the  same  cat  went  to  Nineve  and  ate  my  rooster's  head  and 
came  back.  The  king  said  as  you  are  getting  old  your  mind  is  becoming 
weak  day  by  day.    From  here  to  Assur  it  is  360  Faisath  (Egyptian 


532 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


miles),  how  could  the  cat  go  there,'eat  your  rooster's  head,  and  return? 
I  said  then,  well,  if  it  is  so  how  could  it  be  that  your  mares  conceived 
by  hearing  the  voice  of  my  master's  horse  ?  And  the  king  was  ashamed 
of  what  he  said  to  me  before.  And  he  said,  Akhikar,  I  have  a  pillar 
upon  which  twelve  poplars  are  planted,  and  upon  each  one  of  them  are 
thirty  carriages,  and  each  carriage  has  two  horsemen,  one  white,  the 
other  black,  can  you  tell  me  what  is  that?  I  said  the  shepherds  have 
interpreted  that  to  be:  the  pillar  a  year;  the  twelve  poplars,  the  twelve 
months;  the  thirty  carriages,  the  thirty  days  of  a  month;  and  the  two 
horsemen,  one  dark  and  the  other  white,  the  day  and  night.  And 
Pharao  said,  I  want  two  ropes  made  of  sand,  six  yards  long  and  two 
inches  thick.  And  I  replied,  let  the  king  order  that  a  pattern  of  it 
should  be  given  to  me  that  I  may  make  accordingly.  Then  the  king 
said :  I  do  not  know  about  that,  but  if  you  do  not  make  the  ropes  of 
sand  you  will  not  get  the  revenues  of  Egypt.  I  went  home  and  all 
through  the  night  I  thought  about  the  matter,  at  last  occurred  to 
my  mind  an  idea  and  early  in  the  morning  I  went  to  the  reception  room 
of  the  palace  before  the  king  had  risen  and  made  two  holes  in  the  win- 
dows of  his  room.  Then  at  the  usual  time  I  went  before  the  presence 
of  the  king  and,  pointing  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  coming  in,  in  the  shape 
of  a  rope,  I  said,  here  are  the  ropes  of  sand,  let  the  king  now  order  his 
servants  to  roll  it  up  and  take  it  away.  When  they  saw  this  both  the  king 
and  his  ministers  were  greatly  astonished  and  ashamed  too  of  their 
demand.  The  next  thing  in  order  was  that  a  broken  hand  millstone  was 
brought  in  which  Akhikar  was  commanded  by  the  king  to  mend  by 
sewing.  I  then  took  some  bricks  of  the  same  color  and  presenting  to 
the  ministers  before  the  king,  asked  them  to  spin  and  get  the  thread 
ready  for  sewing,  since  being  a  stranger  I  could  not  have  the  necessary 
matetrial  for  that  purpose.  And  the  king  laughed  and  said  the  day  in 
which  you  were  born,  O  Akhikar,  may  be  blessed  by  the  gods  of 
Egypt.  Then  after  answering  all  the  puzzling  questions  and  riddles 
of  Pharao,  I  obtained  all  the  revenues  of  Egypt  for  three  years,  besides 
the  king  gave  me  also  the  amount  that  I  had  written  in  my  paper.  And 
I  returned  home  to  my  king,  Sankherib,  with  many  presents  and  honors. 
And  I  was  met  with  on  my  arrival  by  the  king,  and  a  great  festival  took 
place,  and  the  king  gave  me  the  first  place  after  him  at  the  table.  And 
Sankherib  said  to  me,  O  Akhikar,  ask  of  me  whatsoever  your  heart 
desires.  And  I  replied  whatever  I  may  ask  of  you,  O  my  generous  king, 
grant  to  Nabo-Swapho,  because  it  is  he  who  kept  me  alive.  But  give 
me  please  my  son  Nadan,  that  I  may  instruct  him  of  something  better 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA. 


533 


since  he  failed  to  comprehend  the  teachings  of  my  first  instructions. 
And  the  king  said,  take  him  and  do  with  him  as  you  please  and  no  one 
shall  interfere  with  you  on  his  behalf. 

So  I  took  my  son  Nadan  home  with  me  and  I  bound  him  with 
chains  that  were  9  kakia  heavy,  and  gave  him  a  sound  threshing  of  one 
thousand  blows  on  his  back,  and  as  much  to  his  feet,  and  I  ordered  that 
for  a  considerable  time  he  should  live  on  very  little  bread  and  water 
only,  and  he  was  put  in  the  same  dungeon  where  I  was  put  before  to 
escape  that  terrible  punishment  of  which  he  tried  to  make  me  a  victim ; 
and  my  other  son,  Naboo-Khel,  I  appointed  as  jailor  over  him,  and  to 
write  down  whatever  I  should  say  on  entering  or  leaving  the  prison 
every  day.  And  I  said  to  him,  my  son,  whoever  does  not  hear  by  his 
ears  will  feel  on  his  neck.  My  son,  I  elevated  you  on  the  throne  of 
success  and  glory,  but  you  threw  me  down  into  misery.  But  righteous- 
ness saved  me.  My  son,  you  became  for  me  like  the  scorpion  that 
stung  a  stone,  and  Satan  said  you  have  touched  something  which 
was  harder  than  your  body.  Then  you  stung  a  needle,  but  the  needle 
said  you  stuck  something  that  was  sharper  than  your  sting.  You 
became,  my  son,  to  me  like  a  goat  that  was  eating  poutha  (a  root  of 
which  some  kind  of  red  color  is  prepared),  and  the  plant  said,  why  art 
thou  eating  me,  since  of  my  root  they  will  take  the  substance  to  color 
your  skin.  And  the  goat  replied,  I  will  eat  thee  while  I  am  living,  but 
they  will  take  thee  away  with  the  root  to  dye  my  skin. 

My  son,  you  became  like  a  man  who  stoned  a  sparrow,  but  could 
not  reach  it  and  only  increased  his  sins  before  God.  You  became  like 
a  man  who,  seeing  that  he  was  trembling  from  cold  poured  on  him  a 
jar  of  ice  cold  water.  Suppose  you  would  kill  me,  let  us  see  whether 
you  would  be  able  to  take  my  place?  You  ought  to  know  it  that  a 
swine's  tail  could  not  be  put  on  a  horse  even  were  it  ten  times  longer 
than  its  natural  size,  and  if  its  skin  were  softer  than  wool,  still  noble 
men  would  not  wear  it.  I  was  thinking  of  putting  you  in  my  place,  that 
you  should  be  my  heir,  but  you  most  foolishly  demonstrated  yourself 
to  be  unworthy  before  God.  You  became  like  a  lion  that  met  an  ass 
and  said,  welcome,  O  my  good  friend.  And  the  ass  replied,  I  wish  that 
you  would  greet  in  that  friendly  way  my  master  who  left  me  to  fall  in 
your  hand.  You  became  like  a  trap  to  catch  sparrows.  A  partridge 
saw  it  and  asked,  what  are  you  doing  here,  and  the  trap  replied,  I  am 
praying  to  God.  And  the  bird  further  asked  what  is  then  that  in  your 
mouth,  and  it  said  it  is  meat  for  hungry  people,  and  the  poor  partridge 
hearing  this  went  gladly  to  eat  of  it,  but  was  caught  instantly,  and  said 


Jmjxo  BftagAZ.-aaaa  ^iu?  Xmu<&  &ax»ao 
^jl3?*Vu JabXo  Jjoc'Vo  laJ-ko  l4^aoo:l»bxo 

.>  faa^  ,£*SV>  l5«^*-  ^t*?*^ 

jtjoaw  ens  „©A  ^o<y^Vt  .VaaVifios 
rXjtaaaop  Ja-cnao  2a&fe  xyioYulaja :  «Ly^fjSiafta 
sua  U^^))^w 


SPECIMEN  OF  ANCIENT  SYRIAC  LANGUAGE. 


RELIGIONS  OF  PERSIA- 


535 


in  its  agony,  if  this  is  the  meat  you  offer  the  hungry,  how  can  God  hear 
your  prayers  ? 

You  became  as  a  partridge  who  could  not  escape  from  a  cage,  and 
still  continued  to  call  his  comrades  at  its  side,  not  knowing  they  would 
fall  in  the  same  condition.  You  became  like  a  lion  who  met  with  a  fat  ox 
but  despised  him  because  he  was  not  hungry  then  but  afterwards 
repented  much  finding  nothing  to  eat. 

You  became  like  a  worm  that  ate  the  best  wheat  in  the  royal 
granary  but  did  not  do  much  for  the  king.  You  became  like  a  sower 
who  took  much  trouble  in  sowing  some  seeds  in  the  field  and  at  the 
time  of  reaping  he  got  as  much  as  he  had  sown,  and  he  said,  O  shame, 
that  you  did  not  bring  more.  You  became  like  a  dog  that  was  laying 
near  a  furnace  as  it  was  cold,  but  when  he  warmed  himself  he  began 
to  quarrel  with  the  fire  for  the  heat  it  produced.  You  became  like  a 
swine  that  was  going  to  a  bath  house  with  the  prince,  but  seeing  a  dirty 
place  on  the  road  it  went  to  plunge  in  it  inviting  the  prince  and  saying, 
come  this  is  the  best  place  to  bathe.  My  son,  my  finger  I  put  in  your 
mouth  to  give  you  honey,  but  you  put  yours  in  my  eye  to  destroy  it. 
The  dog  that  will  refuse  to  eat  from  his  master's  bread  the  wolves  will 
devour  him.  What  have  I  seen  of  your  good  works  that  my  soul  should 
rejoice?  If  gods  would  steal  by  whom  would  they  swear?  I  brought 
you  into  honor  before  the  king,  but  you  have  brought  me  into  the  pit, 
and  if  you  were  so  cruel  to  do  this  to  a  man  who  did  you  good,  what 
would  you  not  do  to  those  who  would  do  you  mischief?  You  became 
like  a  cat  that  was  requested  to  live  in  the  house,  eat  and  drink  and 
enjoy  himself  freely  but  not  to  steal,  but  he  replied,  even  if  my  hands 
were  of  gold,  my  leg  of  silver,  and  my  eyes  of  diamonds,  yet  I  could 
not  help  to  steal  because  that  gives  me  pleasure.  You  became  like  a 
serpent  that  was  sitting  on  a  thorne  carried  by  the  river.  A  lion  saw 
it  and  said,  look  at  that,  men,  a  rascal  is  riding  on  something  like 
himself,  but  something  worse  is  carrying  both  away.  The  serpent 
heard  this  remark  and  replied:  Of  course,  you  are  right  to  call  me  a 
rascal,  but  what  would  you  call  yourself  in  your  dealings  with  the  poor 
animals?  My  son,  I  have  nursed  you  with  the  best  meats,  but  you 
caused  me  to  eat  the  bread  of  sorrow.  I  gave  you  excellent  wine  to 
drink,  but  you  caused  me  to  drink  my  tears.  You  became  like  a  bat 
that  came  out  from  the  earth  to  protest  to  God  for  creating  it  blind, 
but  fell  a  victim^to  the  birds.  Nadan'  thereupon  addressed  me, 
saying:  My  lord,  though  I  have  sinned  against  you,  you  must  have 
mercy  on  me,  we  all  sin  against  God,  but  he  pardons  us  our  trans- 


536 


PERSIA  BY  A  PERSIAN. 


gressions.  Make  me  one  of  your  shepherds.  Yoy  will  have  anyhow  the 
same  good  name  while  I  will  be  called  a  rascal.  I  told  him,  you 
became  like  a  date  tree  that  did  not  give  any  fruit,  the  proprietor  came 
to  cut  it,  'but  it  besought  him,  saying,  O  my  lord,  let  me  live  for  another 
year,  and  I  will  bring  you  raisins.  The  master  replied,  O  thou  fool, 
thou  didst  not  give  once  of  thine  own  natural  fruit,  how  can  I  trust 
that  thou  art  going  to  give  me  something  else.  My  son,  don't  you  know 
that  the  old  age  of  an  eagle  is  far  better  than  a  crow's  youth  ? 

My  son,  they  asked  a  wolf  why  he  was  after  the  sheep,  and  he 
replied,  the  dust  of  their  feet  is  medicine  to  my  eyes.  The  shepherds 
said  to  him,  be  thou  educated  and  learn  to  read,  and  he  replied,  all  right, 
I  will  do  it,  and  they  said,  say  a,  and  he  said  lamb,  and  they  said  say  c, 
and  he  said  goat ;  they  said  e,  he  said'  sheep.  My  son,  they  brought  an 
ass  into  a  nice  room,  but  he  would  not  stay  there  and  asked  where  was 
the  stable,  because  that  was  his  place. 

My  son,  they  say  a  proverb  like  this :  The  man  whom  you  raised  up 
to  honor  caused  your  shame.  My  experience  taught  me  to  say,  let  him 
be  a  son  to  you  who  is  born  of  you,  but  the  son  of  your  sister  keep  you 
always  under  suspicion.  My  son,  let  him  who  brought  me  out  of  the 
grave  judge  me  and  you.  Upon  this  Nadan  died  instantly  as  struck 
from  lightning.  Whosoever  does  good  to  others  will  find  the  same 
from  the  others,  but  whosoever  digs  a  pit  lor  another  surely  himself 
will  fall  in  it. 

(Translated  from  an  ancient  Syriac  manuscript  by  Dr.  Adams.) 


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